The second court is devoted to scenes of religious processions, notably those of Min and Sokar. Despite the generally good state of preservation of the temple, the Hypostyle Hall has suffered greatly, the columns being reduced to a small fraction of their original height. However, in the southwest corner is a treasury building with scenes depicting some of the temple equipment. The weighing of gold, depictions of sacks of gold, and precious stones also appear on the walls. Other temple valuables were probably kept in a better-concealed building immediately in front of the north wall of the sanctuary.

Off to the left of the second Hypostyle Hall is the funerary chamber of Ramesses III, with the god Thoth shown inscribing the king�s name on the sacred tree of Heliopolis.

The focus of the main axis of the temple is the sanctuary of Amun. It was once finished in electrum with a doorway of gold and the doors themselves of copper inlaid with precious stones. Behind the sanctuary lies a false door for Amun-Ra united with eternity, namely, the divine form of Ramesses III.

On the southeastern side of the temple are the remains of a royal palace, which was probably much smaller than the king�s main residence, serving as a spiritual palace as well as the occasional royal visits. It was originally decorated with glazed tiles, and its bathrooms were lined with limestone to protect the mud-brick. From the palace, the king could enter the first court, or peruse it from a window of appearances on its southern side.

To the right of the complex entrance stands the earliest section of the complex, the so-called "Small Temple", founded in the 18^th Dynasty, and repeatedly expanded and usurped under later dynasties. It stood on one of the most sacred spots in all Egypt, the primeval hill which first rose out of the receding waters of Chaos. An inscription describes it as the burial place of the four primal pairs of gods.

The core of this temple was begun by Hatshepsut and Tutmosis III, but her name was later replaced by those of Tutmosis I and II. The structure was incorporated into Ramesses� temple complex and eclipsed by the construction of the mortuary temple. Its entrance was later replaced by a pylon of the Nubian King Shabaka and then usurped by his nephew Taharqa. A small fronting gateway was built during the 26^th Dynasty and usurped during the 29^th by Nectanebo I. To the north of this Small Temple are the sacred lake and the so-called Nilometer, which is actually a well with a passage leading down to groundwater level.

Inside and to the left of the eastern gateway are a group of chapel-tombs belonging to the 25^th and 26^th Dynasties� God�s Wives of Amun. They ruled Upper Egypt nominally at that time. On the lintels above the entrances to these chapels may still be seen the "Appeal to the Living", which encouraged passers-by to repeat the Offering Formula for the kas of these powerful women.

Because of its strong fortifications, Medinet Habu became a refuge in chaotic times. The workmen of Deir el-Medina moved there during the late 20^th Dynasty, and the remains of the house of one Butehamun, a village scribe, can still be seen there at the western end.

During the Christian era, the entire area was covered by the Coptic town of Djeme and even the great temple itself was filled with dwellings and one court used as a church.

     Please stay tuned for the next installment.....

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Memphis, A Special Edition

The Name we use today derives from the Pyramid of Pepy I at Saqqara, which is Mennufer (the good place), or Coptic Menfe. Memphis is the Greek translation. But the City was originally Ineb-Hedj, meaning "The White Wall". Some sources indicate that other versions of the name may have even translated to our modern name for the country, Egypt. During the Middle Kingdom, it was Ankh-Tawy, or "That Which Binds the Two Lands". In fact, its location lies approximately between Upper and Lower Egypt, and the importance of the area is demonstrated by its persistent tendency to be the Capital of Egypt, as Cairo just to the North is today.

Statuary on the grounds of the small area we now call Memphis 

Memphis, founded around 3,100 BC, is the legendary city of Menes, the King who united Upper and Lower Egypt. Early on, Memphis was more likely a fortress from which Menes controlled the land and water routes between Upper Egypt and the Delta.  Having probably originated in Upper Egypt, from Memphis he could control the conquered people of Lower Egypt. However, by the Third Dynasty, the building at Saqqara suggests that Memphis had become a sizable city. 

Tradition tells us that Menes founded the city by creating dikes to protect the area from Nile floods. Afterwards, this great city of the Old Kingdom became the administrative and religious center of Egypt. In fact, so dominating is the city during this era that we refer to it as the Memphite period.  It became a cosmopolitan community and was probably one of the largest and most important cities in the ancient world. When Herodotus visited the city in the 5th century BC, a period when Persians ruled Egypt, he found many Greeks, Jews, Phoenicians and Libyans amoung the population

Entrance to the small museum which houses the Ramses Colossus

Frankly, our concept of Memphis today is very artificial. The city must have been huge, judging from the size of its necropolises which extend for some 19 miles along the west bank of the Nile. These include Dahshure, Saqqara, Abusir, Zawyet el-Aryan, Giza and Abu Rawash, who's names derive not from their origins, but from modern nearby communities. Very few people can imagine the age of this city, as no European cities have yet to attain the span of Memphis' existence, and it is completely outside the comprehension of people in the Americas. Rome may eventually outlast Memphis, but as with any city that remains active for thousands of years, the city center, and various areas of the city shifted over the years, so today, what we think of as Memphis is rather artificial. Some scholars believe that the city may have shifted first north, and then back south though its three millennium history.

Left: A tourist gets her picture taken in front of the Alabaster Sphinx.

But there is little left of the City today, at least that can be seen. Originally, the city had many fine temples, palaces and gardens. But today, other than the scattered ruins, most of the city is gone, or lies beneath cultivated fields, Nile silt and local villages. What we do know of Memphis comes to us from its necropolises, mentioned above, text and papyrus from other parts of Egypt and Herodotus, who visited the city.

For example, we have a number of papyruses from the time of the mysterious Akhenaten  concerning Memphis on such mundane matters as bread baking. And we know that the royal decree rejecting the Cult of Akhenaten issued by Tutankhamun after the earlier king's death originated in Memphis, indicating the cities importance, even over Thebes, in the New Kingdom.

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Still, in the 12th Century AD, one traveler wrote, "the ruins still offer, to those who contemplate them, a collection of such marvelous beauty that the intelligence is confounded, and the most eloquent man would be unable to describe them adequately".  But during the Mameluke period of Egypt, the dikes which held back the Nile floods fell into disrepair, after which Memphis was apparently and slowly covered in silt.

The gardens at Memphis are lovely and relaxing.

The fraction we can see of Memphis today is located principally around the small village of Mit Rahina. We believe that Ptah was the principle pagan god worshipped in Memphis, who was identified with Hephaistos and Vulcan. The remains of the god's temple bordering the village of Mit Rahina was at one time probably one of the grandest temples in Egypt. Today, only a fraction of the temple remains, which was originally excavated by the famous Egyptologist, W.M. Flinders Petrie between 1908and 1913. Ramses II is well represented here, with a colossus of himself near the Alabaster Sphinx along the southern enclosure wall.

Other remains include an enclosure with a ruined palace of Apries to the north of the Temple of Ptah.

The Colossus of Ramses

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The question of the position of Naukratis has long been an undecided one; and for the very good reason that no part of the world, so close to a large Western population, and so essential to archaeology, is such unknown ground as the Delta of Egypt.  There are hundreds of English travelers who are familiar with Upper Egypt and its downs; but it would be easier to find anyone to give a scientific personal account of the sources of the Nile, than one who could give an archaeological account of the remains thickly scattered about its mouths.  

The problem is that thousands upon thousands of years of flood waters and dampness in Egypt's Delta has destroyed most of the monuments in the area, and those that remain are often buried beneath a thick layer of silt.

Herodotus tells us that Ahmose II gave the site to the Greeks, along with a monopoly on sea trade to Egypt. He also tells us that it was the first and only city in which the early Greek merchants were allowed to settle and so from that standpoint along the city has considerable historical importance. However, historians believe that Ahmose only reorganized an existing settlement of foreigners, providing them with new trading privileges. We know of the city's existence from at least 688 BC due to a passage of Athenaios in which he mentions a merchant of Naukratis trading there from Cyprus in the twenty-third Olympiad. Besides, Herodotos tells us that Ahmoses "gave the city of Naukratis ", indicating that the city existed to be given.  In fact, Petrie provides some evidence that the city existed from a very remote time, though most of his earliest discoveries appear to date no earlier then the middle of the seventh century BC.

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The Site was excavated by Flinders Petrie in 1884-1885 and was later investigated by F. Li. Griffin and D. G. Hogarth in the 1980s.  Apparently work continues today.  We are told by Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards in her publication, Pharaohs Fellahs and Explorers that  it was famous for the skill of its potters and the taste of its florists!  She tells us that Petrie turned up inscriptions, coins, sculptures, bronzes, terra-cottas and other treasures at the site. An interesting story has Petrie coming upon the remains of a jeweler's workshop, containing a quantity of lump silver, and a large store of beautiful archaic Greek coins, fresh from the mint of Athens.  The coins were never in circulation, and were probably intended to be made into jewelry. However, there were probably some coins actually struck in Naukratis, and these would comprise the only coinage known from Pharaonic Egypt.

The so-called stele of Naukratis, a perfectly intact stele, was unearthed on the site a little over a century ago (1899). Interestingly, and also uniquely, an identical stele was recently found during the underwater excavations off the coast of Alexandria. The engravings on the stele, now located in the Egyptian museum, are particularly fine. The stele contains a decree of Nectanebo I relating to a levy of ten percent tax on goods coming into the port at Naukratis, as well as goods manufactured in the city.  The tax was for the benefit of the temple of Neith (at Sais). Some account give Naukratis a complete and absolute monopoly on foreign sea trade during this period. 

Some structures still exist at the site, including the temples of Dioscuri, Apollo, Hera and Aphrodite, as well as a scarab factory.  However, there is really very little to see, as most of these facilities are in complete ruin.  Nevertheless, study of the ruins will probably continue for some time due to the importance of the city.

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The ancient site of this city, called Nekhen by the Egyptians, its Greek name Hierakonpolis meaning �city of the falcon�, was long venerated by the ancient Egyptians as the early capital of the Kingdom of Upper Egypt. Just as Naqada or Nubt was the city of Set, Hierakonpolis or Nekhen was the city of the Falcon, first called Nekheny the Nekhenite and represented with two tall plumes on its head. He was assimilated very early with the falcon Horus, patron god of kingship, and Nekhen remained a cult center for Horus even after it was supplanted by Edfu as both provincial capital and temple center. This may have led to one of several outbreaks of strife during the First Intermediate Period. Edfu was taken over for a while by the governor of Hierakonpolis, who was named Ankhtifiy.

Nekhen lay in Upper Egypt, south of Naqada, and Thebes, and across the Nile from El-Kab, which became the city of Nekhbet the vulture deity and one of the two Ladies who guarded the kingship. It lay north of Aswan and just north of Edfu.

Nekhen�s history begins around 4000 BCE, when local hunter-gatherers were joined by farming and herding "colonists."  Recent explorations have shown that by 3500 BCE Hierakonpolis was the most important settlement along the Nile, a vibrant, bustling city stretching for over 2 miles along the edge of the floodplain. At about that time, the population of Hierakonpolis seems to have increased by large bands of people migrating into the Nile Valley from the outlying areas. This may have been the final days of the old nomadic hunting way of life exchanging for the settled life of plenty in the Valley as climactic conditions and the fertility of the floodplain for agriculture pushed the people into the Valley.

The town remained important into the early part of the Old Kingdom, and though it declined as a settlement, its temple to Horus of Nekhen was rebuilt in both the Middle and New Kingdoms. Three or four known tombs dating from the New Kingdom have been found here, including that of Hormose. This tomb gives evidence that the temple of Horus had been renewed by Rameses XI, who had followed the building efforts of Thutmose III five centuries earlier.

A title with Predynastic significance was iri-Nkhn, "keeper of Nekhen". Perhaps "keeper of Nekhen" had prestige when Nekhen was a power center, but by the Early Dynastic period, the meaning of the title may have been lost, leaving it merely an honorary designation, for example, it was a title held by Nedjemankh in the reign of Djoser.

At its greatest growth Nekhen contained perhaps 7500 inhabitants, already equipped with many features that would later come to typify Egyptian culture and form the basis of its economy. Stretching for over 2 miles along the edge of the floodplain, the city held many neighborhoods, filled with farmers, potters, masons, weavers and other craftsmen, and officials. Signs of the outbuildings of a large farm have recently been discovered, including flint figurines of animals.

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On the north side of the town stretched a large installation of pottery vats for brewing wheat-based beer stretched here. It is estimated that this brewery could produce about 300 gallons per day, a ration for 200 people.

A potter�s house was discovered at Hierakonpolis, consisting of a man-made rectangular house, surrounded by a wall, with an oven. One particular house and workshop was uncovered in 1978. It belonged to a potter, who signed his pots by impressing a crescent-shaped thumbprint into the wet clay just below the rim. Some 300,000 fragments of these pots were found littering the ground. The house was rectangular and semi-subterranean, measuring 13.1 X 11.4 feet, built of posts and mud-coated reeds.

A fire must have swept from the kiln to the house, 16 feet away, and hardened the soil and mud bricks, reducing the posts and mats to charcoal ad ash. The house was then rebuilt in stone.

Hierakonpolis increased in population as it benefited from close contacts with Lower Nubia, giving the Hierakonpolis chieftains control of or at least access to trade routes to sub-Saharan Africa. Evidence has also been recently uncovered indicating mining and trade access to the mineral resources of the eastern desert.

The first discovery a hundred years ago of rich caches of discarded temple furnishings on low mound within the modern village seemed to confirm these ancient traditions of this settlement being the early center of the 3rd Upper Egyptian nome. Since a century ago, more recent work has been uncovering objects that slowly expand the knowledge of how these people lived and died.

The macehead of Scorpion and the palette and macehead of Narmer were found in 1898 by J.E. Quibell and F.W. Green at the "main deposit" of the temple of Horus in Hierakonpolis. The Two Dog palette, possibly dating earlier than that of Narmer, a number of small ivories inscribed with the names of Kings Narmer and Den, two statues of King Khasekhemwy of the 2nd Dynasty, and inscribed stone vessels dating to his reign, have also been found.

A seated red pottery lion and the great gold plumed falcon representing Nekheny or Horus have also been found. Many ivory objects such as seals, human and animal figurines in the shapes of scorpions, baboons and dogs, and vessels, wands, plaques and inlays were found at Nekhen, prompting scholars to intimate the perhaps the city was a center for ivory carving craft.

One area excavated within the town yielded almost 4000 flint pieces including a tool kit of scrapers, microdrills, bifacial knives, serrated sickle blades, crescent drills, all for the production of stone vessels. At the same level were found more than 30 carnelian nodules. Carnelian is not a local stone, it has to be imported from the Eastern Desert, so here is more evidence that Nekhen may have been a trade center for exotic goods.

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Hierakonpolis remained an important cult center for the god Horus, symbolic of the living king. A large ceremonial center was excavated out on the low desert, which dates back to early Naqada II. It has been interpreted as a temple, closely resembling shrines depicted on seals from the First Dynasty. At the end of Naqada II, religious activity locally was apparently relocated to the center of the walled town. This so far is Egypt�s earliest temple, occupying about one-sixth of the entire town area. A circular stone restraining wall and adjoining paved area of compacted earth reinforced by rough sandstone blocks have been found, as have the remains of limestone column bases or pedestals for statues.

In the large oval courtyard probably stood a solitary pole displaying the image of the god, while at its base, on makeshift platforms, the early kings of Upper Egypt viewed their bounty and the sacrificial slaughters for the falcon god: cattle, goats, crocodiles and even fish. Around the courtyard, in little workshops, trained craftsmen transformed raw materials from all parts of the region into luxury goods such as ivory boxes, polished stone jars, jewelry and ceremonial weapons.

The central shrine consisted of three rooms, its fa�ade made up of four huge timber pillars that may have stood at least 20 feet high. With colored mats for the walls, the shrine must have dominated not only the temple complex, but the town itself.

Some scholars believe that Nekhen had contact with the city of Uruk in Mesopotamia. The wall enclosing the temple off from the rest of the city is but more similar to the style in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia and the Gulf were the only two other places at this time or since that had this Temple Oval, which in both the Near East and in Nekhen was a semi-circular walled structure which contained virgin sand on which the earliest shrines were raised.

Also, elements similar in Mesopotamian reliefs and paintings are first seen here at Nekhen. Examples of these are "the master of beasts", and the niched facades on the walls. An elaborately niched mud-brick fa�ade within the town has been interpreted as the gateway to a palace, or at least an administrative center of the early state. The gateway wall was no less than 34 feet thick in places and consisted of a double skin of mud brick. Both as a defensive structure and a piece of urban development, the gateway shows the same niches and recessed and buttressed paneled walls that were used on the serekhs.

Tomb 100, called "The Painted Tomb", now lost, contained wall murals that showed similarity to Near Eastern themes. The confronted animals, the bovine turning back its head, the whirling birds, horned beasts, the two warriors with bucklers, all typical of the Gulf and Elam and the Arabian mainland. It showed scenes of hunting and the mastery of animals, fights between small groups of men, a sacrifice and several boats, including a rather non-Egyptian looking one. The figures engaged in hand-to-hand combat held maces of a type used by later culture, and in fact the Naqada II culture brought in the pear-shaped macehead which replaced the flat disc-shaped macehead used earlier.

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Work progressing on the cemetery 6 burial area out in the desert show that this cemetery was used and reused. Between 1979 and 1985, Cemetery 6 was found to contain twelve tombs from the Naqada I and early Naqada II period. The tombs belonged to members of the local elite. Some of the tombs still contained valuable goods despite being heavily disturbed. This site was abandoned during the later Naqada II period, when the burials of later elite nobles were moved closer to the cultivated areas. The Painted Tomb, or Tomb 100, was found herein. During Naqada III, the ending of the Predynastic period, burials of the local elite were moved back to Cemetery 6, within massive rock-cut tombs with offering areas. Excavations at cemetery 6 reveal several large tombs containing Naqada III ware. Tomb 11, looted, still contained beads in carnelian, garnet, turquoise, faience, gold and silver, fragments of artifacts in lapis lazuli, ivory, obsidian, and crystal blades, and a wooden bed with carved bulls� feet. These indicated elite burials but not quite of the quality of the royal burials at Abydos. Tomb 1 in locality 6 has a sunken pit surrounded by triple-coursed mud-brick walls, with wooden planks overlaying it. The walls were plastered, and the pit was surmounted by a replica of a temple or palace made from wooden posts and surrounded by a wooden fence. This may have been a precursor of the mastaba tombs of the First Dynasty and later.

In 1998, two more tombs were discovered at Cemetery 6. Bones within one of the two latest tombs found proved to be a mixture of bones from two human males and seven dogs. In the second tomb were also found the bones of a young savanna elephant.

Other intriguing finds here include two pottery masks with cut-out feline-shaped slanted eyes, aquiline noses, and mouths. Near one mask was found a tuft of twisted human hair, perhaps part of a headdress. The second mask had a beard colored plum red and human ears attached. Part of a third mask have also been uncovered. Masks may have been drawn on the hunters inscribed on the Two-Dog Palette and the Ostrich Palette. To date, the earliest use of human-faced masks dated back to the Fourth Dynasty. Perhaps further work on this tomb will provide more information on the ritual useage of masks, and how early that useage began.

Charcoal samples found in this tomb helped identify the original wood as cedar of Lebanon, the first time that imported wood was discovered at Nekhen, though it is possible that the temple may have also made use of cedarwood for its pillars.

In another tomb a figurine of a cow was found buried with human bodies, while in yet another tomb, a cow�s skeleton was found laid out with a human figurine. The cow�s bones as well as the human bones were impregnated with resin, a precursor to mummification.

To date, 150 burials have been found in another cemetery area, called cemetery 43, belonging to the working class inhabitants of Nekhen, as indicated by a general lack of grave goods and the robust physical nature of the bodies. Seven of these bodies show evidence of decapitation and grave goods such as copper pins and linen matting. Although these burials contained finer grave goods there was a marked absence of disturbance or robbery, unlike many of the other burials.

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Oxyrhynchus, which is today the predominately Muslim town of al-Bahnasa (Behnesa), was in the archaic Christian period, an important center for that religion (as well as an Episcopal See). There is evidence that the persecutions by the Emperor Diocletian were especially severe at Oxyrhynchus. Elias the Eunuch, Isaac of Tiphre and Epiuse are said to have suffered martyrdom here.

The actual ruins of Oxyrhynchus lie outside the modern village as well as beneath it, some seventeen kilometers west of Beni Mazar on the banks of the Bahr Yusuf canal at the edge of the Western Desert.  In fact, in the streets of al-Bahnasa, one can easily recognize fragments of decorations that once adorned Christian edifices, including capitals, friezes and the shafts of columns. Even the local mosque utilized Corinthian and composite columns and capitals that had once belonged to Christian churches.

The first excavations of this region were conducted by English (B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt) and Italian archaeologists, mostly seeking papyri, between 1896 and 1907 under the auspices of the Egypt Exploration Fund. This effort, which sprang from a chance finding near what must have been the dump of the ancient city, was successful, for they discovered several thousand documents among some 40,000 pieces and scraps of Papyrus written mostly in Greek and Latin but also demotic Egyptian, Coptic, Hebrew, Syriac and latter, Arabic. They are indeed priceless in our understanding of life and the economy of Egypt during the first few centuries of the common era. The fragments mostly date from between 250 BC and 700 AD.

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Among the documents, the earliest Christian discoveries were the two series of the Sayings of Jesus, or Logia Jesu, which were published in 1897 and 1904. An example from this text reads:

"Jesus saith, I stood in the midst of the world and in the flesh was I seen of them, and I found all men drunken, and none found I athirst among them, and my soul grieveth over the sons of men, because they are blind in their heart, and see not ..." � Logion III, lines 11-21

However, for Biblical scholars, the most noteworthy finds were probably the third century fragments of Matthew, chapter 1, verses 1-9, 12 and 14-20 (Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2) and fragments of chapter 1, 15, 16 and 20 of John (Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 208 and 1228). We also find many other ancient Biblical references in the papyrus, such as the Gospel of Peter, though most of this is highly fragmentary.

Yet it should also be noted that the papyrus fragments included such mundane items as private letters, shopping lists and tax returns. 

Due to a gap in the written documentation discovered at Oxyrhynchus, it is probable that the city may have suffered a period where it was abandoned, though for how long is uncertain. This would have occurred some time after 645 AD, but by the 9th century, it was again populated.

During 1922, Flinders Petrie and 1930, there were some topography and architectural studies conducted of the ancient city, but even today, although there are some limited excavations continuing, there are no plans known for any methodical and complete unearthing of the city. However, we do know that it took up an area of about two kilometers long and eight hundred meters wide and was enclosed by a high wall with five gates. The main streets of the community were about a mile long and flanked by colonnades. They crossed in a central square and terminated at quays on the east, and led to a road to the desert camel routes to the west. During its peak development, the city may have contained over thirty thousand inhabitants. 

Apparently, the city had many public buildings, as noted in the papyrus unearthed in the region, as well as places of worship. Though only traces remain, archaeologists have identified a theater, which could seat eleven thousand spectators, a hippodrome, where the traditional chariot races took place, four public baths, important because there was no running water available in private homes, a gymnasium, which was an important center of cultural life during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, and two small ports on the Bahr Yusuf canal. It is also likely that there were military buildings, such as barracks, since the city supported a military garrison on several occasions during the Roman and Byzantine periods. 

As for places of worship, during the Greek and Roman periods, Egyptian temples to Serapis, Zeus-Amun, Hera-Isis, Atargatis-Bethnnis, Osiris have been identified. There were also Greek temples to Demeter, Dionysius, Hermes, Apollo, the goddess Fortune together with Roman temples to Jupiter Capitolinus and Mars. 

From the forth century on, the city, which tradition holds was visited by the Holy Family on their travels in Egypt, became one of the leading centers of Egyptian Christianity, with scores of churches and monasteries. In fact, we are told in the "History of the Egyptian Monks" that:

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"Eventually we came to a certain city of the Thebaid called Oxyryncus, which was so famous for good religious activities that no description could possibly do justice to them all. We found monks everywhere inside the city and also in all the countryside round about. What had been the public buildings and temples of a former superstitious age were now occupied by monks, and throughout the whole city there were more monasteries than houses. There are twelve churches in this very spacious and populous city where public worship is conducted for the people, as well as the monasteries which all have their own chapels. But from the very gates with its battlements to the tiniest corner of the city there is no place without its monks who night and day in every part of the city offer hymns and praises to God, making the whole city one great church of God. No heretics or pagans are to be found there, for all the citizens are Christians, all Catholics, so that it makes no difference whether the bishop offers prayer in the streets or in the church."

Though perhaps an exaggeration, the author of this work tells us that there were some ten thousand monks and twenty thousand virgins in Oxyrhynchus.

The principal church located in al-Bahnasa (actually, the twin village of Sandafa), built by Ibrahim Ghattas and Abuna Butrus Ishaq in 1923, of of little interest, except for its modern Byzantine iconostatasis (a screen with icons that stands before the sanctuaries). This church has three haikals (sanctuaries), which are dedicated to the Holy Virgin, Saint Theodore, who is highly venerated in this section of the country, and the Archangel.

Otherwise, there remains a well and a tree in the middle of a desolate Muslim cemetery. It is said that while the child Jesus was playing near this well, he planted a piece of wood in the soil that grew into a green and fruitful tree. In 1995, archaeologists also found the remains of a church beneath the cemetery of al-Bahnasa, though little is known of its history. 

The best known ancient monastery nearby is that of al-Sanquriya (Deir al-Sanquriya), located about three kilometers away from the modern village. The present buildings of this facility, where the Mulid of Amir Tadrus is held, is rather recent, though their foundations date back perhaps to the forth or fifth century. This was the time of the greatest splendor of Oxyrhynchus.

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The Church of St. Theodore here dates to the medieval times, but has kept some ancient elements, such as the four columns at the center of the nave and those of the portico, situated near the northwest corner of the building. They date from the ancient church. The portico columns are made of red granite and three of them have acanthus-leaf capitals.  

The church has three haikhals (sanctuaries), which are dedicated to the Holy Virgin (north), Saint Theodore (center), and Saint George (south). The haikal screen is noteworthy for its ivory inlaid designs. 

There is an amdon (pulpit) attached to the northwestern column that is adorned with icons of the Twelve Apostles. The baptistery is situated in the northeastern part of the church. Just west of the church is an enclosed necropolis with eight tombs belonging to the family of Mikha'il Athanasius, who was responsible for a restoration of the church.

Another ancient monastery, though hardly anything is left of it besides a church built in the nineteenth century, is located just northeast of Oxyrhynchus. This was the monastery of al-Garnus (Deir al-Garnus), which was dedicated to the Holy Virgin. In the church's courtyard can be found many architectural fragments from an older church, including columns and capitals from the sixth century. On its west side, once can still see a well from which, according to tradition, the Holy Family drew water in the course of their journey through Egypt. 

As a side note, it should be mentioned that the Al-Hassan Ibn Saleh Mosque located in Al-Bahnasa dates to the Fatimid era, marking it as one of the oldest outside Cairo. It has recently been restored.

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The remains at Philoxenite are extensive, and include streets, houses and public buildings, along with other structures. The ruins of the town extend for several hectares. Even though simply drawing up a plan based on the walls might give a fairly accurate picture of the towns layout, even this has never been done. 

However, if the town ruins are extensive, the harbor is perhaps even more impressive. There are quays measuring a kilometer in length that stretch into the lake, punctuated by a series of long breakwaters. Six stone jetties, oriented north-south, 100 meters in length form a regular series of docks from which many ships could unload their cargo. The quays along, without the jetties, would permit several hundred embarkations simultaneously. There is even a causeway built on the lake that access an island 100 meters to the east of the town where there were yet more quays and harbors. There was a tower that guarded the route from the breakwater to the island, which might have been a lighthouse or at least a landmark for navigation, though its position on the south side of the island seems unsuitable for this function. The port installations in Marea are certainly among the best preserved in Egypt, at least above water.

There has actually also been some excavation in the center of the town, where archaeologists have unearthed the quay itself, together with a colonnade that bordered it in front of some shops. The wall here is preserved to a height of about a meter. East of this a large building has also been excavated. This was a public bath, symmetrically divided into two separate parts, one intended for men and the other for women, with entrances located on opposite sides. The two sets of baths each containing both collective and private baths, along with furnaces, calidarium, tepidarium and frigidarium (various rooms moderating bath head, from very hot to cold). Here, the walls are fronted with marble from the Princes' Islands. The floors are paved with large slabs of the same material. The sides of the individual baths are made of massive blocks of marble. This double collection of baths made it possible to provide separate access for males and females. Though unexcavated, more baths can be seen to the southeast. The top of their brick walls, faced with marble, are visible, and one can make out the shape of the baths and the furnace just to one side.

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Hence, the impression we have of this town is one of impressive harbor facilities, considerable facilities for storage, and first class, if not luxurious public buildings. However, all of these ruins appear to date to the fifth and sixth centuries AD, and there are no indications of older structures. This is why the town is probably not the more ancient town of Marea, though the Polish team excavating in the region appears to continue to refer to it as such. A scholar by the name of Rodziewicz, one of the best authorities on this region, is credited with its possible identification as Philoxenite. That town is  known to have been created by the praetorian prefect of the Emperor Anastasius (491-518) to accommodate pilgrims on their way to the famous monastery of Abu Mina, some thirty kilometers to the southeast in the desert. It has all the requirements one would expect for this sort of transit, including the large harbor and baths.

Another excavation, also conducted by the University of Alexandria one kilometer south of town, further attests to this function. Here, a large building, dating to the same period as the town, consists of two large peristyle courtyards around which are built about twenty individual rooms where were probably intended as accommodations for pilgrims traveling to Abu Mina. In fact, the two wings are separated by a large church. A fine mosaic in opus sectile was found in the choir of this church, made from marble fragments and colored stone. Two latrines, with a dozen stations each, give some idea of the number of visitors to this hostel. Additional baths built of brick and faced with marble have also recently been uncovered in the middle of the countryside a kilometer east of this building. 

Excavations in the region of this town have continued to produce traces of Christian occupation. As mentioned above, most of the material found dates from the fifth and sixth centuries, which appear to be the towns most flourishing period, though occupancy continued into the archaic Islamic Period. This is also consistent with the principal occupation of Abu Mina, which was visited as late as the tenth century, but saw its most important period also during the firth and sixths centuries.

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Right: An enameled plaque from Qantir

It is known that Ramesses II moved the ancient Egyptian capital from southern Egypt into the Delta, probably both to escape the influence of the powerful priests at Thebes, and to be nearer to the costs of modern Turkey and Syria in order to protect Egypt's borders.

The location of this city, well known from documentation, was long in question. However, in the 1920s, decorated tiles, including some with the name of Seti I and Ramesses II were discovered in the area. 

More recently, beginning in the 1970s, the site was examined by a German expedition, and the Austrian Archaeological Institute under the direction of Manfred Bietak. They have been using magnetometer (gradumeter) to map out the long lost city. This relatively new method of archaeological discovery is mostly non-intrusive, and in many cases where the land is agricultural in nature, is the only suitable method of exploring a site. By late 1999, some 75,000 square meters had been measured in the fields around Qantir, and domestic areas, administrative quarters of a vast palace-temple compound, a possible cemetery and a region with poorer houses were defined. 

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Their work firmly established the site as Pi-Ramesse, with ruins stretching as far as Tell el-Dab'a to the south covering an area of some thirty square kilometers. Edgar Pusch, head of the German archaeological team, tells us that, "Something like this has never been detected before in Egypt". The computer plottings made by the team show winding streets, structures that look like small houses, spacious buildings, palaces and a lakeshore. Some of the amazing finds include a huge stable, to which was attached royal chariot and arms factories.

Covering nearly 17,000 sq. meters, the stable had six identical rows of halls connected to a vast courtyard. Each hall had 12 rooms, each 12 meters long. The floors sloped down to holes for collecting horse urine that Pusch speculates was used in dyeing cloth, softening leather and fertilizing vineyards."

Apparently, these stables were able to hold as many as 460 horses and is the largest ancient stable ever discovered. There were actually two layers of stables, with the larger and later stables probably having been built by Ramesses III. 

"Horses were very important in the expansion of the Egyptian empire and these stables were built on a strategic location close to the trade routes leading to Lebanon and Syria, and not very far from the Hittites" 

Mohamed El-Saghir, Head of the Pharaonic Antiquities Department in the SCA. 

Below the two stable layers, workshops for the manufacture of glass, faience and Egyptian blue were found, and below this layer, a palace like complex was found that contained a gilded gold floor overlaying stucco with an embedded polychrome cartouche of Ramesses II.

Around the arms and chariot factories, chariot parts, arrow shafts, flint arrowheads, javelin heads, daggers and bronze scales for body armor have been discovered.

Left: A lacquered and engraved brick

In ancient times, there were many more branches of the Nile river located in the Delta, but only two remain. Pi Ramesse was located on an extinct branch that dried out beginning in the 20th Dynasty. Hence, kings of the 21sty Dynasty moved virtually all the monuments, item by item, to the new capital at Tanis (as well as to other cities).

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It is probable that a number of temples were located within this ancient city. These religious centers included a great temple of Re, along with other temples to Amun, Ptah and Sutekh (Set, or Seth). The remains of the temple dedicated to Sutekh have been located in the southern part of the city. There were probably many other smaller temples and chapels. We believe that among these were temples dedicated to Wadjit and Astarte. 

Unfortunately, it will probably require another twenty years for the Magnetic mapping alone to be finished. Proper excavations of such an areas as the stables would require a lifetime to complete.

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"I wish to speak of a fairly prominent mound which one notices on the same chain which separates the lake from the sea. On the far side of this hillock, which lies 1000 to 1200 meters from the Tower of the Arabs on the ay back to Alexandria, one can just make out a kind of steps, some sections of masonry in dressed stone, finally some quadrangular, sloping surfaces which give the whole structure a pyramidical form."

Just below this mound, one can just make out the course of the main street through the remains that are still visible on the surface. It descends towards the lake, and other roads are also visible that run at right angles. Here, houses that were laid out in tiers along the slope facing the lake are also visible. This town, like Taposiris, is oriented more towards the traffic on the lake than towards the sea coast.

Plinthine remains almost completely unexcavated. The site was investigated by Adriani between 1938 and 1939, and again by the Egyptian Archaeological Service in 1960. From these rudimentary surveys, it would appear that the site would be a worthwhile project for further archaeological study. The work concentrated on the necropolis and the Greek hypogea (an underground chamber) dating to the second century BC. However, very little appears to be known about the town, so close to the somewhat better known Taposiris, and its function. 

In the necropolis, what was found were burial enclosures with dry stone walls separating the individual plots. They are well preserved, which allows us to study the way these were divided up among the dead. They also provide considerable information about the monuments that marked the underground tombs, and provide clues about tombs elsewhere on Egypt's North Coast. 

So far there have been around one hundred burials discovered in the necropolis, including four subterranean tombs that are especially well preserved. In these, a flight of steps hewn from the rock leads to an atrium. A grave shaft provides the underground rooms with light. An orderly sequence of burial chambers has been cut out of the rock. These chambers once had doors, attested to by the mortices of the hinges that are still in place. The rooms are oblong and many of them have a bench running around the walls under the burial cells. Some of these cells remain sealed up with slabs decorated with paintings or stucco. In one tomb, a beautiful dexiosis stele, similar to one unearthed at Gabbari, remains well preserved, while beside it, a double door with including a frame with Doric pilasters has been carved in stucco. Near the door are some stone slabs set on edge, imprinted with several dozen seals, presumably of Greek magistrates. These official seals appear to guarantee that the burial would not be disturbed, a process known from Pharaonic Egypt but otherwise not known from Graeco-Roman times.

In another neighboring tomb, a frame of stucco mimics a monumental door with two double columns. The capitals on the columns are in a style known as Nabatean, but which are really Alexandrian. The columns flank two depictions of Anubis, who sit on their haunches facing each other. They are the guardians of the dead, and above them is a band of uraei which in turn is surmounted by an entablature supporting a pediment, typical Greek architectural elements.

Essentially, this necropolis is important because the tombs here are considered to be probably very similar to those of the Alexandrian necropolises. However, while most of the tombs in Alexandria are devastated or entirely destroyed due to the ancient capital's continual occupation, Plinthine has been deserted since the end of antiquity. This site offers a mixture of Egyptian and Greek motifs, just like the Alexandrian necropolises, and hence an opportunity to study a group of tombs thought to be very similar to those of Alexandria.

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Known as Antaeopolis (town of Antaeus) ion pharaonic times, there was once a great temple and was mentioned in the La Description de Egypt but that is gone now.  The necropolis is still there, however, atop the mountain.  There is a chapel consisting of several porticoed terraces which opens onto a series of underground rooms.  The ramps leading from the valley floor add a sense of great proportions  to the complex.  There are three 12th Dynasty tombs here, but most are from the 30th Dynasty which was in the Roman period.

Regrettably, the history of Egypt is skewed, particularly to the average reader, to the desert areas where the Pyramids are located and to the southern regions around Luxor and Aswan.  The reason for this is that in the Delta, monuments are most often in a much worse state of repair due to water damage.  We may never know the splendors that might have been because the ancient building projects are often either completely gone, or only fragmentary bits and pieces remain.  

Left: Statue of the 26th Dynasty Ruler probably found at Sais.

This is the case with Sais.  While it was an important center, not much remains and much of what we know comes from documentary evidenced found elsewhere as opposed to archaeological discoveries at Sais itself. In fact, It is Herodotus who mostly tells us of its temples, royal palaces and tombs.  There have actually been few archaeological excavations around the city, and those that have been carried out have for the most part been small and unsuccessful. Even as late as the middle of the 19th century, there were some remaining mud brick walls, but by the end of that century, only a trace could be found of a huge rectangular enclosure. The rapid demise in this case was probably due to farmers who use the mud brick for fertilizer. Stone blocks were reused in the Middle Ages, and today, only isolated stone blocks remain.

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However, in 1997, the Egyptian Exploration Society did mount a fairly substantial survey to Sais, and they appear to continue some work in the area.  They were able to trace the last vestiges of the enclosure wall. They have turned up some interesting data, including core samples that seem to contain pottery shards from the predynastic period.  And while their evidence suggests that after the Saite kings, the city shrank back to its most glorious period, indications are that the Temple of Neith may have rivaled in size and splendor that of the Temple of Karnak. The society maintains that, contrary to appearances, there is probably considerable excavation work that needs to be carried out in the area.

Right: A statue of Chief of Physicians, Psammetik-seneb, originally installed in Sais.

What is more evident from Sais is a substantial number of artifacts, including statues, stelae and sarcophagi scattered about in various museums throughout the world.  Most of these date from the 26th Dynasty, but none so far have turned up that are earlier than the 3rd Intermediate Period.

We know, for example, that that Amasis (Ahmose II) was an extremely active builder within the city, erecting a pylon for the Temple of Neith, setting up colossal statues and even creating a human-headed sphinx processional way.  The enclosure of Neith where her main cult center was located seems to have been a focus of building projects and the Kings of the 26th Dynasty were interred in chapel tombs in the courtyard of her temple.  However, there were also provisions for other Egyptian gods including Osiris, Horus, Sobek, Atum, Amun, Bastet, Isis, Nekhbet, Wadjet and Hathor.  

There were specifically building projects surrounding the God, Osiris, including a burial place and a sacred lake where rituals of the Festival of the Resurrection of Osiris were celebrated.  This site was impressive, with obelisks and other adornments that are now mostly ruined.

Today Sais is not really a tourist destination and most non-archaeological visits are met with disappointment.  However, the city may one day help Egyptologists better understand the structure of communities and their inhabitants in the Delta.

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Mariette was followed by Flinders Petrie, who excavated here between 1883-86. Petrie made a detailed plan of the temple precinct, copied inscriptions and excavated exploratory trenches. Roman era papyrus discovered by Petrie are now in the British Museum.

Pierre Montet, excavated at Tanis between 1921 and 1951, and the site is still being excavated by the French today. It was Montet who conclusively proved that Tanis could not have been Avaris (Tell el-Dab'a) or Piramesse. Montet also discovered royal tombs of the 21st and 22nd Dynasties at Tanis in 1939, but his discovery resulted in little recognition because of the outbreak of World War II. The tombs were all subterranean and built from mud-brick and reused stone blocks, many of which were inscribed.  Four of the tombs belonged to Psusennes I (1039-991 BC), Amenemope (993-984 BC), Osorkon II (874-850 BC) and Sheshonq III (825-733 BC).  The occupants of the other two tombs are unknown. However, the hawk-headed silver coffin of Sheshonq II was also found in Psusennes' tomb, as well as the coffin and sarcophagus of Amenemope. The sarcophagus of Takelot II (850-825 BC) was found in the tomb of Osorkon II. The artifacts from the Tanis necropolis are the most important source of knowledge covering royal funerary goods of the Third Intermediate Period.

Poor old, tired Ramesses the Great rests in the sand at Tanis

During the Old and Middle Kingdoms, the region was known as the Field of Dja'u, which was a good fishing and fowling preserve. Today, the area is often called San al-Hagar, which actually refers to the northern tell (or hill) where much of the site is located. San al-Hagar is actually the largest tell in Egypt, encompassing some 177 hectares of land, and rising about 32 meters. However, there is also a southern mound known as Tulul el-Bid. San al-Hagar is also the name of the local village, which was built upon the western quay of ancient Tanis.

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Originally, the region was a part of the thirteenth nome (province), but Tanis became the capital of the nineteenth Lower Egyptian nome in the late period (747-332 BC). The earliest mention of the town is known from a 19th Dynasty building block of Ramesses II discovered at Memphis. However, nothing at the site itself suggest an existence prior to the 20th Dynasty. 20th Dynasty burials lie under an enclosure wall, which indicate  a settlement, but the greater metropolis was probably not founded until the reign of Ramesses XI, the last king of the 20th Dynasty, when Egypt was divided between two rulers. It became the northern capital of Egypt during the 21st Dynasty. It was probably the home city of Smedes, the founder of that Dynasty and, since one of his canopic jars was found in the vicinity, probably the location of his tomb. Though there were rival cities, we believe it remained Egypt political capital during the 22nd Dynasty.

By the Roman Period, the port of Tanis had silted up, and Tanis became a fairly minor village. Most of the temple limestone was burned for its lime at that time. During Byzantine times, Tanis became a small bishopric, but it was eventually abandoned during Islamic times, and was not resettled until the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha.

There were a number of temples, seven according to the Egyptian government, located in the area of Tanis. The chief deities worshiped here were Amun, his consort, Mut and their child Khonsu, who formed the Tanite Triad. Note that this triad is, however, identical to that of Thebes, leading many scholars to refer to Tanis as the "northern Thebes".

The earliest recorded building at Tanis dates to the reign of Psusennes I, Smedes's probable successor during the 21st Dynasty. He was responsible for the huge mud-brick enclosure wall surrounding the temple of Amun between four ranges of hills on Tell San el-Hagar. which he erected in a depression of virgin sand some eight meters above the flood plain using earlier blocks quarried from structures at Piramesse,  The wall measures 430 by 370 meters 10 meters tall, and was 15 meters thick.  Within the outer wall is a mud-brick interior wall. Joint inscriptions of Psusennes I and Pinudjem I within the temple indicate a reconciliation between the thrones of Tanis and Thebes.

 However, rulers from the 21st and early 22nd Dynasties added to the temple complex, and Nectanebo I (380-362 BC) used stone from earlier building projects of Sheshonq and Psamtek to construct the sacred lake.

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An obelisk at Tanis clearly connected with Ramesses II, from the cartouch

Today the site is full of inscribed and decorated blocks, columns, obelisks and statues of various dates, some inscribed with the names of rulers such as Khufu, Khephren, Teti, Pepi I and II and Senusret I. However, the majority of inscribed monuments are connected with Ramesses II, though these items must have been brought in for there is no evidence that the site dates from before the reign of Psusennes I. He is positively attested by foundation deposits in the sanctuary in the easternmost part of the great temple. Other later kings are also attested to through foundation deposits. Egyptologists believe that the artifacts of Ramesses II were probably imported from ancient Piramesse, which we today identify with the modern town of Qantir.

Near the southwestern corner of the main temple complex are smaller temples dedicated to Mut and Khonsu. Astarte, an Asiatic goddess, was also worshiped in these smaller temple, which were originally built under the reign of Siamun Karnak, and thus making Tanis into a northern replica of Thebes. (984-965 BC). This construct therefore completed the ensemble of structures fashioned after

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There were other structures within the enclosure wall, in particular a sed-festival chapel and a temple of Psamtik I, but these were some of the stones used by Nectanebo I in his building efforts. Osorkon II usurped many of the earlier monuments of the Amun Temple to built an East  Temple, using granite palmiform columns dating to the Old Kingdom that were re-inscribed first by Ramesses II prior to their reuse, and then once again by himself. Sheshonq III built the West Gate of the temple precinct from reused obelisks and temple blocks, some from the Old and Middle Kingdom. It was fronted by a colossal statue usurped from Ramesses II.

During the Late Period, the Nubian king Piye of the 25th Dynasty conquered Tanis and King Taharqa, a successor made it his residence for a short time. Some reliefs from that dynasty have been found reused in the Sacred Lake's walls. Afterwards, Tanis passed back and forth between Nubian, Assyrian and Saite rulers until the 26th Dynasty, when Psamtik built a kiosk at Tanis. It featured a procession of nome gods, but this structure was later dismantled and reused in other structures. During the First Persian Occupation of Egypt, no further building seems to have taken place at Tanis.

Necktanebo I, during the 30th Dynasty, probably was responsible for an enormous outer wall built of brick, as well as a temple to Khonsu that was annexed to the northern side of the old Amun temple, near the Northern Gate. However, it was not completed until the Ptolemaic period. There was also a temple of Horus, near the East Gate, that was begun during the 30th Dynasty, but it too was completed by the Ptolemies. Ptolemy I built the East Gate of the precinct, and Ptolemy II and Arsinoe dedicated a small brick chapel, while Ptolemy IV built a temple in the southwestern Mut enclosure. However, by this time, the Amun temple was almost certainly abandoned, as there were Ptolemaic era housed built over the structure.

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Tanis is probably not one of those sites one would wish to visit on a one time, short tour of Egypt. However, for those on a second trip, or with a little additional time, it is a very nice tour through Egypt's Delta, including perhaps a stopover at Tell Busta, further south. Such a tour would usually only take one day.

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Strabo mentions the site, and tells us that it is a city "which is not on the sea and holds a great public festival". It was also known to geographers such as Pseudo-Scylax of Caryanda (c. 350 BC) and Claudius Ptolemaeus (second century AD), and it was indicated on the tabula peutingeriana, a map of the ancient world copied in 1265 from an original that probably dated back to the second century. Napoleon's scholars recorded its monuments in 1801.

The great festival alluded to by Strabo was almost certainly the ceremonies honoring Osiris, one of Egypt's most important ancient gods. The ruins of his temple that crown a ridge of rocks that separate the lake from the sea remain substantial. The enclosure wall that measured 100 by 85 meters with two meter this walls still rise to a height of ten meters. There are two pylons on the eastern wall, and inside are staircases and service rooms. The construction of the sanctuary in this temple is attributed to Ptolemy II.

However, the temple that once stood in the center of the enclosure is now gone. It was replaced by a church in the fourth century. However, the Ptolemic temple must have been of the Doric style, as attested to by the column fragments that were reused in more recent construction inside the enclosure. Saint-Genis confirmed this in 1801, and Marseillais Pascal Coste, a generation later, writes that"

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"...all the way round this ruin and in its center one sees fragments of capitals, of cornices with triglyphs, fluted column drums 55 cm in diameter and other details of the Greek Doric. This supports the assumption that this building is of the Ptolemaic period."

At the base of the enclosure wall are a series of small rooms, as well as some flights of steps that gave access to the top of the walls. We believe that this is what is left of a Roman military camp.

Along the summit of the rocky ridge is the city necropolis and the quarries, which were worked into the nineteenth century. This soft limestone has been worked since antiquity, but during modern times, this work has damaged some of the surrounding tombs. Here, there are simple pits barely large enough to hold a man, as well as shaft grave with a square opening sunk five or six meters down into the rock that gave access to lateral chambers. 

The largest tombs located here have a corridor that is cut into the rock that in turn leads to an atrium and to subterranean rooms, some of which were very large. Unfortunately, the sarcophagi have now disappeared. However, above one of these large tombs, one local citizen raised a very interesting monument. It appears to be a replica of Pharos, the famous lighthouse at Alexandria considered to be the Seventh Wonder of the Ancient World. It consists of three tiers of carefully dressed small blocks of local limestone. The base is square, followed by an octagonal section and then a cylindrical one, in the same order as the Phraos. 

This landmark stands some 30 meters high, making it about a fourth or fifth the size of the original. A staircase within gave access to the summit. Originally, there may have even been some sort of light installed as a beacon, but irregardless, it must have been an important navigational landmark by sailors on both the lake and the sea, for it can be seen from a distance on all sides. In fact, it shows as a landmark on the charts of the British Admiralty.

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Taposiris itself faces the lake, not the nearby sea. It should be understood that the towns main commercial actives were directed towards wares in transit on Lake Mariut and over land routes. The ruins of the town cover more than a square kilometer and are almost completely unexcavated. The tops of the walls of buildings show through on the surface just about everywhere.  The mudbrick ruins of the town contain remains of public baths, built by the Emperor Justinian, as well as oil presses, other domestic structures and dwellings, some decorated with plaster and mosaics.

The layout of the lakeshore here is interesting. A long breakwater built some three meters above the level of the lake extends from north to south for over 300 meters. The northern end of the breakwater is joined to the southern shore by a wall that barricades the basin and prevents all movement. Hence, boats were required to pass beneath a bridge which connected the breakwater to the northern shore. These structures clearly were used to facilitate traffic control and tax collection. Like Schedia, about thirty kilometers to the east, is probably served as a customs checkpoint for boats coming from or going to Alexandria. In fact, the existence of a long wall, known as the wall of the Barbarians, which blocks the onshore route to the west of the temple of Osiris, confirms that Taposiris' main function was that of a customs station. This wall, which is made from large blocks of local limestone during the Greek Period is still visible. It ran from the sea to the lake, thus blocking the way of caravans traveling in both directions. 

A team of Hungarians very recently unearthed a small cache of gold coins minted in Constantinope and a gold bracelet decorated with nine crosses. The coins bear the bust of the Byzantine Emperor Maurice Tiberius who ruled from 582 to 602 AD. Another is graced by the Byzantine Emperor Hercules on one side and his son Hercules Constantine on the other. The Byzantine Emperor Phocas, who ruled from 602 to 610, appears on the other two coins. A well preserved black granite bust of the goddess Isis, depicted in the Greek style with a wig of curls has also been found in the temple area.

Only a kilometer to the east is another small Greek town which was called Plinthine. 

The site which had previously been somewhat neglected is now undergoing preservation by the Supreme Council of Antiquities.

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The temple of Soknebtunis is situated at the southwest corner of the site. The paved dromos that approaches the temple form the south dates to the Roman reign of Augustus, though it was built up over an earlier Ptolemaic dromos. Marking its beginning are the bases for a pair of lions, followed by a kiosk built of rusticated blocks (which may have never been finished) in a walled enclosure. Between them, another Roman dromos heads west into the desert, perhaps leading to a large, painted underground chamber which has not yet been discovered, but which may have been the funerary temple of  Sobek. The pair of crouching lions beyond the kiosk mark the beginning of the older Ptolemaic dromos, and the next kiosk dates to the early Ptolemaic Period.

During the Roman Period,  deipneteria (dinnings rooms) were built on either side of the main dromos, as well as on both sides of the secondary one leading west. The deipneteria were used for club and family feasting. A fullery was established opposite the lateral dromos. Behind the dinning rooms to the west were blocks of Roman housing and merchants. The first block down terminated with four shops, open to the street, that sold food. The next block, built over a Ptolemaic portico, is known today as "the block (insula) of the papyri," because it yielded almost a thousand administrative and literary texts. South of these, closer to the temple, were a few tower houses and small granaries, while just prior to the temple stood a peristyle courtyard of fluted Ionic columns that was once plastered and painted to resemble marble built on a platform. There was a row of Doric columns to the east and a series of rooms to the north. The peristyle courtyard was built during the first century BC on the site of earlier buildings, and was modified in the first century AD, when the shrine was added. Part of it was built over a public bath house with small individual stone baths, which dated to the third or second century BC. This structure was replaced by a monumental bath house to its west, which may have been in use between the late second century BC through the first century AD.  It had separate bathing rooms for men and women and a massive underground cistern.

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Beyond the vestibule, to the south, the main Soknebtunis temple complex, including its enclosure and dromos, was a completely new construction initiated by Ptolemy I. The entrance into the massive mudbrick enclosure of the temple was through a stone pylon, which in turn led into the first courtyard. Within the courtyard were a number of structures, including two cellars that were filled with papyri inscribed with religious, scientific, literary, administrative and private texts. Written in hieratic, demotic and Greek, and mostly related to the temple and its priests, the papyri mostly date to the second century AD.

On the inside right wall of the second pylon the base of a relief is visible that probably depicted a Ptolemaic king making offerings. Inside this pylon is the inner court, where surface fragments of the ancient temple indicate that it was made of stone and decorated with painted reliefs. However, only the mudbrick foundations of the temple survive. Along the enclosure are rows of annex building made of mudbrick which were used to house priests and for storage.

Various texts indicate that the temple prospered through the Roman Period and at least into the third century. However, after that, during the Byzantine period, the temple and its gateways of stone were harvested to provide building material for churches.

The houses in the southwest corner of Tebtunis indicate various building phases in which the structures were built, abandoned and rebuilt on different plans, from the fourth century BC through the first part of the third century AD, when the area, including the temple, was abandoned and covered by sand. The irregular grid of streets and houses visible in the central area of Tebtunis formed the Roman Period center of the village, when it reached its greatest extent. Here, early excavations unearthed thousands of private and public documents, mostly dating to the Roman era. Traces of Roman Period buildings extend right to the north edge of the site, but most of what is visible there dates to the Byzantine and Arab eras, when the occupied area shrank northwards.

South and southwest of the temple in the desert lie the village cemeteries, one of which contained over 2,000 mummified crocodiles. Some of them had been wrapped in Ptolemaic administrative documents, including the Menches Archive, that richly documented the nearby village of Kerkeosiris.

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There are also two recently excavated Arab period houses at the site, one dating to the ninth century and the other to the seventh or ninth century. Also, in the northeast corner of the site are the remains of a massive mudbrick tower on foundations of reused stone. In the northern sector of the site are the remains of millstones and press parts, but these are of late date and represent the remains of an abandoned site for processing agricultural products.

The ancient site of Tebtunis was completely abandoned by the eleventh century AD, when the name of the town was transferred to a new village to the north of the ancient one.

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Thebes
By Marie Parsons

The ancient name for the city the Greeks called Thebai was Waset, the Scepter nome, and it was the main city of the fourth Upper Egyptian nome. It was close to Nubia and the eastern desert, with their valuable mineral resources and trade routes. The site of Thebes includes areas on both the eastern bank of the Nile, where the temples of Karnak and Luxor stand, and the western bank, where are the large private and royal cemeteries and funerary complexes.

Waset was little more than a provincial town in the Old Kingdom. Though two brick-built mastaba tombs dating from the 3^rd or 4^th dynasty have been found in the Theban area, and a small group of tombs have been found dating from the 5^th and 6^th Dynasties in the area of the necropolis known as el-Khokha, it is not clear if there was an actual Old Kingdom settlement here. The royal residence and tombs, as well as most of the tombs of the court and government nobles at this time, were primarily built at Saqqara near Memphis, closer to the Delta.

No buildings survive in Thebes older than the portions of the Karnak temple complex, which may date from the Middle Kingdom, but the lower part of a statue of King Niuserre of the 5^th Dynasty has been found in Karnak. Another statue which was dedicated by King Senwosret of the 12 dynasty may have been usurped and re-used by him, since the statue bears a cartouche of Niuserre on its belt. Since seven rulers of the 4^th to 6^th Dynasties appear on the Karnak king list, perhaps at the least there was a temple in the Theban area which dated to the Old Kingdom.

According to the current historical record, Thebes did not come into its political strength until the First Intermediate Period. A large number of private inscriptions from this period indicate that the rulers, or provincial governors, or Koptos, Moalla, and Thebes are prominent at this time. One governor named Ankhtifi relates that though he was able to take over the areas of Edfu and others, he was subsequently defeated by forces from Thebes and Koptos.

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The Theban rulers were apparently of the family Inyotef, who before long began to write their names in cartouches. The second of this name even called himself the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, though his power didn�t extend much further than the general Theban region.

Finally, one ruler named Mentuhotep, meaning Montu is satisfied, took the prenomen of Nebhepetre, and it is he who is credited with once again reuniting all Egypt under one ruler, and beginning the 11^th Dynasty, what Egyptologists call the Middle Kingdom. Nebhepetre ruled for 51 years, and built the temple at Deir el-Bahri that most likely served as the inspiration for the later and larger temple built next to it by Hatshepsut in the 18^th Dynasty.

Once again Thebes declined politically, as Amenemhat I of the 12th Dynasty decided to move his capital north again to a new site called Itjtawy or Lisht. Although the capital was moved, Thebes took on a new role as the religious center of the nation, as its god Amun was promoted to principal state deity. The oldest remains of a temple dedicated to Amun date to the reign of Senwosret I in the 12^th Dynasty. The core of this Middle Kingdom building lay in the heart of the current temple, behind the sanctuary. Its walls were constructed of limestone which were later removed for use elsewhere. So now there is an empty space between the sanctuary and the Festival hall of Tutmosis III. However, the small so-called "White Chapel" shrine built by Senwosret I has been rebuilt and stands in the Open Air Museum at Karnak.

The peak for Thebes came during the 18^th Dynasty. Its temples were the most important and wealthiest in the land, and the tombs on the west bank were among the most luxurious Egypt ever saw. The center of the city during New Kingdom and later times stretched between the two major temples of Karnak and Luxor, along the avenue of sphinxes that connected them. The area is now almost entirely covered by the modern city of Luxor.

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During the Third Intermediate Period, the High Priest of Amun formed a counterbalance to the 21^st and 22^nd Dynasty kings who ruled from the Delta. Theban political influence receded only in the Late Period.

The main part of the town and principal temples were on the east bank. Across the river on the west bank was the necropolis with tombs and mortuary temples, but also the west part of the town. Deir el-Bahri is there, the mortuary temples of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep and Hatshepsut, and the temple of Amun by Tutmosis III, the Ramesseum of Ramesses II, and other mortuary temples of Seti I at Qurna and Amenhotep III with the Memnon Colossi. Amenhotep III had his palace at el-Malqata there, and in the Ramessid period, Thebes centered north of there, at Medinet Habu.

Most of the temples on the west side of the Nile were royal mortuary temples to maintain the cult of the deceased kings buried in their tombs cut in the cliffs further west. The most important of these temples were at Deir el-Bahri, the Ramesseum and Medinet Habu. The mortuary temple of Seti I stands at Qurna, while only the Memnon Colossi and other fragmentary statuary now mark the site of the enormous temple of Amenhotep III. The temples dedicated to the deities Hathor, Thoth and Isis, all dating from the Graeco-Roman period, were also built in the area.

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In many cases, this time was also used by the craftsman from the Deir el-Medina village to quickly add the finishing touches to the king's tomb.  For these workers, the King's death was, at least in the background, a rather joyous occasion because with the coronation of a new king came a new tomb and hence new jobs.

Documentation of the royal funerary ritual is uncommon, though there is more evidence from the private tombs. Some of our information also comes from the tomb of Tutankhamun. After the mummification process of the pharaoh's body was completed, the funeral procession began at the royal palace and moved on to the West Bank.. The king's body was carried on a sledge pulled by oxen, followed by a second sledge that held the canopic chest. On the west bank, the procession would reach the "Road where Re Sets" and would head for the "Great and Majestic Necropolis of the Pharaoh's Millions of Years Life Strength Health in the West of Thebes".

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In a funeral tradition that remains today, crying and screaming women would follow the royal mummy in its wooden sarcophagus. The bald headed priests solemnly walked along with the procession burning incense and shaking their sistrums. Often the procession was led by the new pharaoh, and and included the viziers of Upper and Lower Egypt, as well as other dignitaries and family.

Once the funeral procession reached the tomb, the coffin was stood upright.  Now the high priest, and at times even the new pharaoh, would perform the Opening of the Mouth ceremony.  This procedure was believed to restore the dead pharaoh's senses, as well as his use of speech and ability to eat and drink. 

After the Opening of the Mouth ceremony, the dead king was finally carried to the monumental stone sarcophagus deep in the tomb's burial chamber. After he was placed in this sarcophagus and the heavy cover carved in high relief was affixed, family, friends and other dignitaries would attend a funeral banquet, while workmen sealed the the tomb.

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During the 18th dynasty, the entrance was sometimes hidden, but beginning with the 19th dynasty, the tomb entrance was always in plan view.  The door was sealed using one of two methods.  Either the wax seals were placed on the plaster of the doors themselves, or affixed on a small clay block around the fine cord used to tie the doors of the burial chamber. The seals usually included the figure of Anubis as a crouched jackal.  

No one was permitted to enter the royal tomb once it was sealed. At least, theoretically. Later, we of course know that tombs were entered for a variety of reasons.  They were entered both by tomb robbers  and by priests who sought to protect the tombs and mummies from the tomb robbers.  There were even occasional second burials in the tombs.

But during normal times, the entire necropolis was guarded and only the priests, guards and craftsmen working on new tombs were allowed into the necropolis. Guards also made rounds to the tombs, checking the royal seals.

In describing any process in ancient Egypt, one must remember the thousands of years of Egyptian history, processes did not remain constant over that time, and new aspects of beliefs and rituals were constantly assimilated with older beliefs and rituals.  This must be kelp in mind at all times, but we believe that the funeral of the 18th and 19th dynasty kings buried in the Valley of the Kings remained somewhat constant during that span of time.

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The first king of the New Kingdom, Ahmose of the 18^th Dynasty, built a pyramid-like structure at Abydos, which may or may not have been his original tomb. But all the remaining rulers of the period, except for the so-called Amarna interregnum, had their tombs cut into the rocks of the West Bank at Thebes, specifically at the Valley of the Kings. From Thutmose I in the 18^th Dynasty of the New Kingdom period, all the kings, and occasionally high officials of that period, were buried in the secluded wadi, or dry gully, which today is called Valley of the Kings.

The peak known in Arabic as el-Qurn was known in ancient times as dehent, the Horn, and was sacred to the goddesses Hathor and Meretseger, "She who loves Silence."

The Valley, known as Biban el-Muluk, "doorway or gateway of the kings," or, the Wadyein, meaning "the two valleys," is actually composed of two separate branches. The main eastern branch, called ta set aat, or "The Great Place," is where most of the royal tombs are located, and in the larger, westerly branch where only a few tombs were cut.

The Valley is hidden from sight, behind the cliffs, which form the backdrop to the temple complex of Deir el-Bahri. Though the most direct route to the valley is a rather steep climb over these cliffs, a much longer, shallower, route existed along the bottom of the valley. This was quite possibly used by funeral processions, pulling funeral equipment by sledges to the rock-cut tombs in the Valley.

With its worker�s village later called Deir el-Medina, the valley was called the Place of Truth or Set Ma�at, in ancient times. The workers of Deir el-Medina, who for generations since their community was established, could reach the Valley in about 30 minutes by walking along the steep mountain paths. Today, energetic folks may spend 45 minutes to an hour climbing the paths leading from the north side of the amphitheater of Deir el-Bahri and over the mountain ridge into the Valley of the Kings. Their efforts would be rewarded by splendid views of the Theban region.

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The Valley contains 62 tombs to-date, excavated by the Egyptologists and archaeologists from many countries. Not all of the tombs belonged to the king and royal family. Some tombs belonged to privileged nobles and were usually undecorated. Not all the tombs were discovered intact, and some were never completed.

The powerful kings of the 18^th and 19^th Dynasties kept the tombs under close supervision, but under the weaker rulers of the 20^th Dynasty, the tombs were looted, often by the very workers or officials supposedly responsible for their creation and protection. In order to prevent further thefts, the mummies and some of their funerary objects were reburied in two secret caches, not to be re-discovered until the 19^th century of the modern era.

Visitors to Egypt have often journeyed into the Valley to view the accessible tombs, including Tut’s, but with the increasing tourism, urban and industrial growth, pollution, and rising groundwater, the tombs have suffered over the decades. Today their access is rotated, so that a smaller number of tombs are open at one time, and even then, many of the decorations and walls can only be seen behind glass.

According to Diodorus and Strabo, and Greek and Latin graffiti, two writers of ancient times, a few of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were known and visited by ancient tourists during Ptolemaic times. Today, only a few of the 62 known tombs are accessible and open to the public. Eleven of the tombs, including Tutankhamun’s, Ramesses VI, Amenhotep II, and Seti I, have been set with electrical lighting.

Right: Entrance to Tutankhamun's Tomb

The earliest king buried in the Valley was Thutmose I, the latest, Ramesses XI. In 1922, Howard Carter found the last and possibly most well-known of these tombs, that belonging to the young King Tutankhamun. It lies directly opposite the tomb of Ramesses IX. For all the amount of treasure that had been found in this tomb, the space itself is small, and all but one room was undecorated.

Directly across from Tutankhamun’s tomb lies KV5, where work continues to uncover what may be the last resting place of the 150 sons of Ramesses II.

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Ramesses VI had one of the largest tombs in the valley. His tomb is decorated with scenes from the books of the underworld, and the burial chamber is dominated by the shattered remains of the king’s massive granite sarcophagus.

Left: Tomb of Ramesses VI

The tomb of Ramesses I, who had a brief reign, is a single small chamber at the end of a steep corridor. It bears some similarity in its decoration with the tomb of Horemheb, while being more elaborate. The tomb of Merneptah, 13^th son and successor of Ramesses II, is badly damaged but worth visiting. Psusennes I appropriated one of the sarcophagi for his own burial at Tanis.

The tomb of Thutmose III is the earliest-era tomb that can be visited. Its walls are covered with 741 different deities and its ceiling is spangled with stars. The first of the tombs usually accessible is that of Ramesses IX, listed as tomb 6, right next to Tomb 55, now inaccessible.

Right: Tuthmosis III Sarcophagus

The tomb of Seti I is the largest and most elaborate of the royal tombs. It is often closed to visitors because of rock falls and a lack of ventilation. Giovanni Belzoni, the Patagonian Samson, first entered this tomb in 1817 and brought back the alabaster sarcophagus and canopic chest to England, where they rest in the John Soane Museum. Some large wooden statues of Seti I similar to the black and gilt statues of Tutankhamun now stand in the British Museum.

The tomb of Ramesses II was begun for his father, Seti I, but abandoned, because the corridor cut into the adjacent tomb of Amenmesse. Belzoni removed the cartouche-shaped sarcophagus lid and it now rests in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge. The box sits in the Louvre.

Left: Column in tomb of Amenhotep II

Situated at the southern end of another wadi is the tomb of Amenhotep II. In 1898, in its southwest chamber was found one of the caches of royal mummies. This tomb’s seclusion made it a good reburial place for the nine royal mummies placed here in order to protect them from further depredations. Thutmose IV, Amenhotep III, Siptah, and Seti II were among the re-buried. Amenhotep II was found still lying in his own sarcophagus.

Along with royal tombs, tombs belonging to officials were found more or less intact. One was Maiherpra, a Nubian prince educated at court with the royal princes, one of which became Amenhotep II. Subsequently Maiherpra held office under that king.

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The Classical Greek writers Strabo and Diodorus Siculus were able to report that the total number of Theban royal tombs was 47, of which at the time only 17 were believed to be undestroyed. Pausanias and others wrote of the pipe-like corridors of the Valley, tombs into which travelers could descend and admire the wall decorations.

Some of these travelers left their names and other marks. The earliest datable graffito in the Valley was found in the tomb of Ramesses VII, and can be dated to 278 BCE, and the latest, left by a governor of Upper Egypt was dated to 537 ACE. The French scholar Jules Baillet counted over 2000 Greek and Latin graffiti left over the Classical centuries, along with a lesser number in Phoenician, Cypriot, Lycian, Coptic, and other languages. Almost half of these were found in the tomb of Ramesses VI, who was considered to be the fabled Memnon himself.

After the Arabs came into Egypt in 641 ACE, interest in the Valley waned considerably. It was not until the end of the 16^th century that once again travelers began once again to take notice. Although the location of Thebes was clearly marked on a map of 1595, in 1668 a Father Charles Francois visited "the place of the mummies" and apparently did not realize its significance. It was left to another Frenchman, Father Claude Sicard, head of the Jesuit Mission in Cairo, traveling in Egypt between 1714 and 1726, who visited in the Valley in 1708 and located 10 open tombs including that of Ramesses IV. He wrote of the extensive wall paintings and their colors.

Left: Father Claude Sicard

Sicard’s notes for the most part were unfortunately lost, and thus the first significant published account of the Valley was left to an Englishman named Richard Pococke in 1743. He apparently noted signs of about 18 tombs, though believing that only nine of these could be entered. In 1768 a Scotsman named James Bruce visited Luxor and explored the Valley. He visited the tombs of Ramesses IV and of Ramesses III, henceforth known as "Bruce’s Tomb." The principal feature of the latter tomb, for Bruce, were the fresco scenes of three harps.

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William George Brown visited the Valley in 1792, and he left his name in the tomb of Ramesses III. He also recounted one of the few extant accounts of contemporary Arab interest and excavation at the site. Browne wrote that the site had been explored "in the last 30 years" by a certain son of a Sheikh Hamam, but it is unknown whether or not this person was successful. Browne also described several tombs to which he had access, three of which did not seem to tally with descriptions given by Richard Pococke.

After Napoleon�s Expedition in 1798, two Frenchmen named Prosper Jollois and Edouard de Villiers du Terrage recorded the position of 16 tombs. For the first time the existence of a western branch of the valley was recorded, including the tomb of Amenhotep III. Jollois and de Villiers were to publish their works in the 19 volume Description de l�Egypte.

Right: Jean Francois Champollion

One of the great names of early Egyptology has to be that of Champollion, for his work in translating the ancient hieroglyphic symbols on the Rosetta Stone and thus opening the door to a greater understanding of the lives of these people. But though this work and his beautiful drawings published in his Monuments de l�Egypte et de la Nubie left a brilliant legacy for scholars who followed him, he also left a legacy of shoddy and misguided destruction. Champollion and his companion Rossellini removed two scenes from the tomb of Seti I, which they brought to the Louvre and to a museum in Florence.

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Giovanni Belzoni, called the Patagonian Samson, was the first modern-era European to visit the Valley of the Kings. He was sponsored by the Englishman Henry Salt, Consul-General in Egypt in 1816. Among other treasures, Belzoni removed from Egypt the sarcophagus of Ramesses III from "Bruce�s Tomb," and it now lies in the Louvre and the Fitzwilliam Museums. To give him some credit, Belzoni also not only confirmed the presence of the 47 tombs known to Classical writers, but added a further 8 tombs to that list, including those of King Ay, Prince Mentuherkhepshef, and Ramesses I. Belzoni�s most well-known find in the Valley was the tomb of Seti I, the finest so far found.

Left: Giovanni Belzoni

After Belzoni�s escapades, scholars began to emphasize recording and studying what had been found in the Valley, rather than simply searching for more tombs. John Gardner Wilkinson, born in Chelsea, England in 1797 excavated in the Valley in 1824 and in 1827-28.at his own expense. Except for the West Valley, which he numbered separately, Wilkinson physically assigned a number to each tomb entrance, still visible today. Tombs KV1-21 are marked on the map of the main valley in his Topographical Survey of Thebes of 1830.recorded in 1827 that 21 tombs were open to view, listing them in chronological order. He copied scenes and inscriptions and then published the first accurate account of the tombs, titled Topography of Thebes, in 1830.

James Burton was a contemporary of Wilkinson in Thebes. He began a clearance of the tomb listed as KV20, which he had to abandon due to "bad air" and only later would be proven by Howard Carter to be the tomb of Thutmose I and Hatshepsut. Burton also began a superficial examination of the tomb later called KV5. This tomb would wait until the 20^th century to prove itself as the largest tomb to-date, most probably cut to serve the family of Ramesses II. At least 50 of his children have been found so far to have been buried therein. Burton published no records of his work, though some 63 volumes of his notes and drawings were given to the British Museum upon his death in 1862.

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Karl Richard Lepsius followed both examples, that of scholarly recording and that of removing artifacts from their original place of rest. In 1844, Lepsius led a Prussian-backed expedition to Egypt. After years of exploring, mapping, and drawing pyramids, tombs, and monuments, including the Valley of the King tombs, Lepsius returned and produced the twelve-volume work Denkmaler aus Agypten und Athiopien. But he also sent out of Egypt 15,000 pieces, and at one time, overthrowing a decorated column in Seti’s tomb merely in order to remove a portion of it, leaving the rest in wreckage on the floor.

Left: Karl Richard Lepsius

In the latter half of the 19^th century, this plundering would come to a close. Auguste Mariette laid the foundations of a national Egyptian museum and for a governmental antiquities service. It was Mariette who discovered the Serapeum, the burial place at Memphis of the sacred Apis bulls, and the intact burial of Queen Ahhotep, mother of Ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom. But Mariette’s greatest contribution to Egyptology was the formation of the Antiquities Service. As Director-General, he was responsible for awarding concessions to all excavators, monitoring all digs, and policing the export of antiquities.

When the first cache of royal mummies was discovered in 1881 at Hatshepsut’s temple of Deir el Bahri, world attention was once and for all focused on the quiet valley, and the first of many new excavations began in the area. Victor Loret arrived in Luxor in 1898. Loret had been appointed as the Director-General of the Antiquities Service, established by Mariette in 1856. Only five days after he began to dig below the cliffs under the Qurn, or "Horn" mountain, his team discovered the tomb of Thutmose III. He added 16 tombs to the map of the principal Valley. He also discovered the second cache of royal mummies within the tomb of Amenhotep II.

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But Loret was not well-liked, and upon his resignation Maspero was reinstated. In 1899, Maspero appointed Howard Carter to be Antiquities Inspector for Upper Egypt. His responsibilities were to maintain all the sites of Upper Egypt and to grant concessions for others to dig, rather than having the authority to dig on his own. One of Carter’s claims to fame in this job was that he installed the first electric lighting, handrails, staircases and running boards in the royal tombs.

Financing these improvements required the backing of investors, and one such was the American Theodore Davis. Under his patronage, Carter discovered the royal tomb of Thutmose IV, including a wonderful royal chariot, and the tomb of Hatshepsut herself, containing her sarcophagus and that of her father Thutmose I.

Right: Howard Carter

When Davis persuaded Maspero in 1903 that he could no longer work with Carter, Maspero promoted Carter to Inspector of Saqqara, but Carter resigned six weeks later and never worked for the Antiquities Service again. Maspero replaced him with James Quibell, but he too was eventually replaced, by Arthur Weigall. Weigall was the one who broke through a tomb entrance that Quibell had earlier discovered, to find the rich burial goods and mummies of Yuya, Master of the King’s Horse, and his wife Thuya, the parents of Tiye, wife of Amenhotep III and mother of Amenhotep IV, later to rename himself Akhenaten.

More archaeologists and Egyptologists would follow, and great finds would continue to be made. Many excavators would return to Egypt and add astounding discoveries in the Valley to their earlier finds. Howard Carter was one who kept on working. For all the incredible efforts and discoveries made in the Valley of the Kings, in past decades or within just the past weeks, and all the contributions to the expansion of our knowledge of the funerary practices and literature and of the kingly history of ancient Egypt, all these seem veritably overshadowed by the finds made that relate to just one burial, the tomb and riches of the young King Tutankhamun.

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The Egyptian belief that "To speak the name of the dead is to make him live again" is certainly carried out in the building of the tombs. The king's formal names and titles are inscribed in his tomb along with his images and statues. Beginning with the 18th Dynasty and ending with the 20th, the kings abandoned the Memphis area and built their tombs in Thebes. Also abandoned were the pyramid style tombs. Most of the tombs were cut into the limestone following a similar pattern: three corridors, an antechamber and a sunken sarcophagus chamber. These catacombs were harder to rob and were more easily concealed. Construction usually lasted six years, beginning with the new reign. The text in the tombs are from the Book of the Dead, the Book of the Gates and the Book of the Underworld. See also a history and overview of the Valley of the Kings.

Entry to the Valley of the Kings

Ramesses IV
Three white corridors descend to the sarcophagus chamber in this tomb. The chambers ceilings depict the goddess Nut. The lid of the pink granite sarcophagus is decorated with Isis and Nephthys, which were meant to serve as guardians over the body. Their duties fell short, however, as the tomb was robbed in ancient times. Originally the priests placed the sarcophagus in Amenhotep II's tomb in order to hide the body, which was a common practice.

Ramesses IX
Two sets of steps lead down to the tomb door that is decorated with the Pharaoh worshipping the solar disc. Isis and Nephthys stand behind him on either side. Three corridors lead into an antechamber that opens into a pillared hall. The passage beyond that leads to the sarcophagus chamber.

Merneptah
The steep descent into the tombis typical of the designs of the XIX Dynasty. The entrance is decorated with Isis and Nephthys worshipping the solar disc. Text from the Book of the Gates line the corridors. The outer granite lid of the sarcophagus is located in the antechamber, while the lid of the inner sarcophagus is located down more steps in the pillared hall. Carved on the pink granite lid is the figure of Merneptah as Osiris.

Ramesses VI
Originally built for Ramesses V this tomb has three chambers and a 4th pillared chamber was added by Ramesses VI. Complete texts of the Book of the Gates, the Book of Caverns and the Book of Day and Night line the chambers. Portions of the Book of the Dead are located in the pillared chamber, along with scenes of the sky goddess, Nut.

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The Burial Chamber in the Tomb of Ramesses VI

Ramesses III
The tomb is sometimes referred to as the "Harpers Tomb" due to the two harpers playing to the gods in four of the chambers. Ten small chambers branch off of the main corridors. These were for the placement of tomb furniture.

Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu

Seti I
The longest tomb in the valley, 100m, contains very well preserved reliefs in all of its eleven chambers and side rooms. One of the back chambers is decorated with the Ritual of the Opening of the Mouth, which stated that the mummy's eating and drinking organs were properly functioning. Believing in the need for these functions in the afterlife, this was a very important ritual. The sarcophagus is now in the Sir John Soane Museum, London.

From the Temple of Seti I at Abydos

Tuthmosis III
The approach to this unusual tomb is an ascent up wooden steps, crossing over a pit, and then a steep descent down into the tomb. The pit was probably dug as a deterrent to tomb robbers. Two small chambers, decorated with stars, and a larger vestibule are in front of the sarcophagus chamber, which is uniquely rounded and decorated with only red and black.

Amenhotep II
In this Tomb, a steep flight of stairs and a long unadorned corridor lead to the sarcophagus chamber. Three mummies, Tuthmosis IV, Amenhotep II III and Seti II, were found in one side room and nine mummies were found in another.

Horemheb
This tomb's construction is identical to that of Seti I's with the exception of some of the inner decorations.

Temple

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Tutankhamun
Though small and unimpressive, Tutankhamun's Tomb is probably the most famous, due to its late discovery. Howard Carter's description upon opening the tomb in 1922 was, "At first I could see nothing, the hot air escaping from the chamber causing the candle flames to flicker, but presently, as my eyes grew accustomed to the light, details of the room within emerged slowly from the mist, strange animals, statues and gold - everywhere the glint of gold. For the moment - an eternity it must have seemed to the others standing by - I was dumb with amazement, and when Lord Carnarvon, unable to stand the suspense any longer, inquired anxiously, 'Can you see anything?' it was all I could do to get out the words, "Yes, wonderful things."' The royal seal on the door was found intact. The first three chambers were unadorned, with evidence of early entrance through one of the outside walls. The next chamber contained most of the funerary objects. The sarcophagus was four guilded wooden shrines, one inside the other, within which lay the stone sarcophagus, three mummiform coffins, the inner one being solid gold, and then the mummy. Haste can be seen in the reliefs and the sarcophagus, due to the fact that Tutankhamun died at only 19 years of age following a brief reign. Though extremely impressive to the modern world, the treasures of Tutankhamun must have paled when compared to the tombs of the great Pharaohs that ruled for many years during Egypt's golden age.

See Also the Tutankhamun Collection.

From the Tomb of Tutankhamun

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The Valley of the Queens is located on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes). There are between 75 and 80 tombs in the Valley of the Queens, or Biban al-Harim.  These belong to Queens of the 18th, 19th and 20th Dynasties.  These include

The Tomb of Khaemwese (Tomb 44): Scenes in Khaemwese's tomb show him being presented to the guardians of the gates to the afterlife along with his father.  He is making an offering in the scene, and is dressed in a robe, wearing a necklace and the sidelocks of youth.

The Tomb of Queent Titi (Tomb 52): She is probably the queen of a 20th Dynasty.  She is depicted with the sidelocks common to the Egyptian young of the period and in the presence of the gods Thoth, Atum, Isis and Nephthys.  In the next chamber the queen is shown making offerings to Hathor the cow, and in the last chamber the gods Neith, Osiris, Selquit, Nephthys and Thoth.

The Tomb of Amenhikhopeshef (Tomb 55): Amenhikhopeshef was a son of Ramesses III and scenes show him with his father and the gods Thoth, Ptah and others. He was probably about nine years old when he died.  Scenes show him being presented to various gods, including Anubis, the Jackal-headed god of the dead, by his father, Ramesses III. A premature baby was also found in to tomb. This belonged to this mother, who aborted upon learning of Amenhikhopeshef's death.

Nefertari

The Tomb of Nefertari (Tomb 66): One of five wives of Ramesses II, Nefertari was his favorite and the tomb here has been is said to be one of the most beautiful in Egypt.  The tomb is completely painted with scenes though out.  In most of these, Nefertari, known as 'the most beautiful of them', is accompanied by gods.  She is usually wearing a golden crown with two feathers extended from the back of a vulture and clothed in a white, gossamer  gown. Be sure not to miss the side room where one scene depicts the queen worshipping the mummified body of Osiris.  Near the stairs to the burial chamber is another wonderful scene with Nefertarti offering milk to the goddess Hathor. 

Tombs:

• Amenherkhepshef, Tomb of - Valley of the Queens (QV55)
• Khaemwaset, Tomb of - Valley of the Queens (QV44)
• Nefertari, Tomb of - Valley of the Queens
• Tyti, Tomb of - Valley of the Queens (QV 52)

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Tomb KV55 (possibly belonging to Akhenaten, Tiy or Smenkhkare) is not open to the public, yet it has been said that more has been written about KV55, a tomb in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes), than any of the others located in that area. Whether this remains so today is questionable, but it is still a mystery tomb with many important secrets, that if given up, could answer important questions about the 18th Dynasty.

Excavation History

The tomb was discovered by Edward Ayrton (an American lawyer turned Egyptologist), while working as an excavator for Theodore Davis, on January 6th, 1907. He had been working west of the tomb of Ramesses IX (KV6) on a pottery jar cache when he accidentally uncovered the entrance to KV55. The tomb was partially sealed by its original door and plastered, which was then stamped with the "jackal and nine captives" stamp, the same seal found on the tomb of Tutankhamun. Apparently that barrier had been breached, and later the corridor was filled with limestone rubble, to within a meter of the ceiling, that flowed out into the single chamber and once again blocked off with a roughly built wall of limestone over the remains of the original barrier. This probably occurred during the 20th Dynasty, when other tombs in the area were also resealed. However, even this barrier, which was situated atop rubble rather than the bedrock, did not last but it appears that when the tomb of Ramesses IX was cut the chips and debris spilled over the entrance, effectively sealing it once more. We are told that the rough limestone barrier should have been better investigated, but that Ayton perhaps was more interested in the treasure that might lie within. In fact, it is rather clear that the tomb was excavated somewhat hurriedly, as well as haphazardly.

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There was considerable water damage within the tomb from a leak  above the doorway that continued down into the tomb. This crack was repaired in ancient times. By 1908, the objects discovered thus far in the tomb had all been removed and a steel door erected at the entrance. Most of the items taken from the tomb ended up in the Egyptian Antiquities Museum in Cairo, while a few miscellaneous objects also found their way to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. A few other objects also went to European museums such as the RMO in Leiden. These artifacts all date from the time of Amenhotep III to the reign of Tutankhamun and those that are inscribed have the names of Queen Tiy, Amenhotep III or Tutankhamun. However, soon after Davis finished excavation, a number of items turned up missing, apparently stolen by workmen. Gold bands that once encircled the base of the coffin were taken, and only recently returned. Most of the other items were "ransomed" early on by Davis. 

In about 1922, Howard Carter found a few items from the tomb in a cleft in the rock at the tomb entrance. Afterwards, Harry Burton who was working for Howard Carter, in 1923 set up a darkroom within the tomb to develop photographs of the finds taken from the tomb of Tutankhamun. During this period the steel door to the tomb entrance went missing and was replaced by stones. Yet by 1944, this barrier too collapsed and the tomb began to fill with debris.

In 1959, Elisabeth Thomas drew a sketch of the tomb plan, and recently the tomb was further investigated by Lyla Pinch Brock, who turned up a few additional items while clearing the tomb in 1993. Later, in 1996, she repaired the plaster in the burial chamber and restored the broken stairway.

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Burial chamber before and after cleanup

Tomb Layout and Design

This tomb likely started out as a private tomb, and was then reworked partially as a royal tomb, but at some point its construction was interrupted so that its size and form more closely resembles a private tomb still. The entrance stairs, consisting of 21 steps, are cut fairly deep into the overhang of the rock, like royal tombs, but beyond, there is only a corridor, measuring 1.8 meters wide and about 2.5 meters high, and one chamber. This burial chamber measures about seven meters long by five meters wide by four meters high. However, black vertical masons' marks indicate that another room on the east side of the burial chamber was also intended. Furthermore, an ostracon, discovered fairly recently by Brock and painted with what appears to have been the tomb plan, along with masons' marks on the walls near the entrance indicate that the entrance was enlarged, the ceiling raised and the number of stairs increased, and at some point, also lowered. These would all evidence the intention of turning what was a private tomb into a royal tomb.  The sloping passage and burial chamber resemble the design elements of Tutankhamun's tomb, which itself was originally meant to be a private tomb, as well as the tomb of Yuya and Tuya, which indeed is a private tomb. Furthermore, current excavators such as Kent Weeks believe all three tombs were probably cut at the same time. Also, the entrance cutting seems to have been duplicated in WV23, belonging to Ay and WV25.

The walls of the tomb were plastered, but never decorated which further suggests the intent to make a royal tomb out of what was to originally be a private tomb. This plaster work appears to have been done some years after the tomb was originally quarried. However, it is interesting that most of the plaster on the north wall had already been lost by the time of the actual burials.

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Discoveries within the Tomb

The perplexity of this tomb began when it was originally entered, for on top of the fill in the corridor lay a door leaf and a large panel that turned out to be from a large gilded wooden shrine prepared by Akhenaten, the heretic king, for his mother's (Tyi, Tiye) burial in el-Amarna. This was his new city established to honor the king's love affair with Aten, the sun disk. As the excavators crawled and burrowed atop the fill to the burial chamber, they encountered more bits and pieces of the shrine. However, as with most of the objects left behind by this king, his (we believe) figure and cartouche had been erased during ancient times from the remains of this artifact.

Right: Top - A seal with throne name of Amenhotep III; Bottom: A magic brick inscribed with the throne name of Akhenaten

Within the burial chamber itself was found a somewhat decayed wooden coffin, obviously of royal origins with the crook and flail visible, as well as an uninscribed bronze uraeus. Here too, however, the cartouches had been cut out and the bottom part of the gold face mask viscously torn away. Within the coffin lay a mummy wearing a gold vulture pectoral. Approximately in three corners of the burial chamber were fragments from four mud "magical bricks" (with one under the coffin) along with a variety of broken funerary equipment consisting of fragments of wooden furniture, hematite and blue glazed vases, boxes and ritual implements. Within a large niche on the south wall, probably begun as an entrance to another side room, lay four, unused calcite canopic jars. The coffin and canopic jars seem to have been originally prepared for a woman but adapted for the use of a male. 

More recent finds within the tomb by  Brock include pieces of granite and quartzite, several beads, the Ostracon mentioned above, fragments from the original plaster door sealing that were stamped with mostly illegible impressions, blue painted pottery fragments and a hieratic docket and mud seal related to an estate in the Sinai and another estate belonging to Sitamun, a daughter and wife of Amenhotep III.

Left: The coffin missing part of the gold in the face mask

Regrettable, some small, but perhaps very important objects from this tomb were scattered about. Of late, considerable attention has been given to a "coffin basin" and gold foil sheets found within the coffin. These were some of the items that turned up missing from the Egyptian Antiquities Museum, those some of it may never have made it that far. There is considerable debate concerning how these various items turned up, and how they turned up, but what appears to be the most important aspect of their "modern discovery" is that at least some of the items appear to have been inscribed. Yet, even considering the importance that many amateur and professional Egyptologists assign to this tomb, it is perhaps surprising that even some of the visible inscriptions have not been fully analyzed. While we will not go into the long stories involved with the history of these objects, it does appear probable that the name of Smenkhkare, a probable successor (or predecessor) to Tutankhamun, does appear on a few of them. On the other hand, an official of Germany's Munich Museum is reportedly said that inscriptions on the coffin basin would "surprise many Egyptologists". We suppose someday this statement will be clarified. 

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Who's Tomb and Who's Burial

Who this tomb was originally built for is most likely lost to us. Davis was convinced that the tomb was redone for Queen Tiy, and he apparently rejected any other explanation. He believed that the head snapped off of the canopic jars were of this Queen, and indeed, the haircut given the human heads was popular for both men and women of this period. He also believed that the vulture pectoral bent about the mummy was the queen's crown, and of course there was also the shrine that was clearly hers. 

 Left: the gold pectoral

Weigall, who representative the antiquities service, however, thought that the bones could not be those of Queen Tiye. He thought they belonged to a man, perhaps Akhenaten and this tomb was the result of his mummy being quickly removed from el-Amarn. To support his theory Weigall pointed to everywhere in the tomb where a name had been erased, and especially on the coffin, the gold mummy bands which had encircled the body and the ripped apart gold portrait mask. He also thought that the gold pectoral vulture was not a queen's crown but the 'vulture collar' of pharanoic burials. 

To Davis' credit, he invited both a European physician from Luxor and a prominent American obstetrician who was visiting Thebes to examine the body while it was still in the tomb in order to decide its sex. Apparently both surgeons, after examining the pelvis of the mummy (which was quite visible due to the wrappings having decayed), instantly agreed that it was the pelvis of a woman. Today, we know that the physicians erred, perhaps because of the post-mortem damage done on the skeleton that resulted in the separation of the hip bones from the sacrum. Since then, a number of experts have re-examined the mummy with the conclusion that it is in fact that of a male. 

Right: Canopic Jars from the tomb

However, now feeling vindicated, Davis went on to publish his account of the excavations as "The Tomb of Queen Tiye" (Tiy). Then, in 1907, the mummy was sent to Elliot Smith who was a Professor of Anatomy in Cairo. He was apparently, to Davis' dismay, the first to identify the mummy as that of a male. However, he further concluded that the bones were that of a young male in his mid-twenties. Smith thought that the bones were those of Akhenaten, but of course Egyptologists immediately disagreed. Akhenaten obviously lived a much longer life, given all of the events that transpired during his reign. 

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Now, almost a century after the tomb's discovery, the issue of who's mummy was found in the tomb and who the tomb was modified for is still hotly debated. There are three major sets of evidence that sponsor the debate. One set consists of the shrine and a number of minor items of furniture that are associated with the burial of Queen Tiy.  These objects seem to indicate that she was buried in this tomb, though her mummy and most of her funerary equipment were absent. It could have been removed when workmen quarrying the tomb of Ramesses IX (KV6) above it stumbled upon this tomb.  The absence of her mummy bears little light on the matter, for it was discovered along with others in the Amenhotep II cache in that king's tomb (KV35). It, along with others, were removed for safe keeping during antiquity, but from what tomb we are uncertain.

Right: An inlay from which a cartouche has been removed, most probably the name of Akhenaten

Another set of evidence includes the mummy, coffin, canopic jars and magic bricks. These items were perhaps originally prepared for a secondary wife of Akhenaten named Kiya.  However, we believe she fell out of grace with that king in year eleven of his reign, and sometime afterwards were redesigned for a male, and probably a king. But of course, most of the cartouches and other references to this king had been removed from the items, or were never inscribed in the first place.

Finally, we should take into account the multiple openings and closings of this tomb, as evidenced by the evolution of barriers erected during ancient times. We may not simply assume that that all of these were the result of robberies, though it has been suggested that the tomb could have been reentered in order to remove the cartouches of Akhenaten.

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Some Egyptologists believe that Akhenaten and his mother were most likely originally entombed at el-Amarna and that they were both later moved to the West Bank at Thebes by Tutankhamun, who was (almost certainly) Akhenaten's son. It had become obvious that the priesthood would not allow Akhenaten's new religion after his death, so his old capital was abandoned.

Modern analysis provided some evidence that the body was, in fact, that of Akhenaten, though it has also proven problematic. As Arthur Weigall states:

"The body was lying in a coffin inscribed with Akhenaton's name; it was bound around with ribbons inscribed with his name; it had the physical characteristics of the portraits of Akhenaton; it had the idiosyncracies of a religious reformer such as he was; it was that of a man of Akhenaton's age as deduced from the monuments; it lay in the tomb of Akhenaton's mother; those who erased the names must have thought it to be Akhenaton's body, unless one supposes an utter chaos of cross-purposes in their actions; and finally, there is nobody else who, with any degree of probability, it could be."

Unfortunately, the latest estimates of the mummy's age range between 20 and 26 years, which conflicts with the archaeological analysis. However, it should be noted that this analysis was made based on wisdom teeth from the mummy, which may not yield a completely accurate age. Furthermore, the burial of both Tiy and and Akhenaten at the same time in this tomb does not provide a reason for the multiple openings and closing of the tomb. One possible explanation suggested by some is that the mummy of Akenaten was later removed from the tomb and replaced with another mummy, possibly that of Akhenaten's favored son-in-law. A number of other theories seem to float around Egyptology circles, but few seem to meet all the criteria of the evidence.

Left: Gold foil reported to have the cartouche of Smenkhkare

One theory suggests that the burial was actually that of Smenkhkare, a Pharaoh who may have followed Tutankhamun, but soon perished and was subjected to a hastily arranged burial. This theory holds that his funerary equipment was gathered from various sources (much as items in the tomb of Tutankhamun were "borrowed" from others).  It appears that a recently discovered piece of gold foil bearing the cartouche of Smenkhkare may lend some support to this theory.

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Others believe that Queen Tiy was originally buried in WV22 along with her husband, Amenhotep III, and Akhenaten was originally buried at el-Amarna. Then, during the reign of Tutankhamen, Tiy was reburied in KV55 and, perhaps several years later, Akhenaten was also buried there in a coffin that had been altered for him. However, it seems somewhat odd that Tutankhamen would remove his grandmother from his grandfather's tomb. Furthermore, there are indications that Tiy outlived her husband by a number of years, and was never buried with him in the first place.

So the riddle continues, and may never be answered. Time and advances in technology may eventually tell us whether the body found in KV55 is indeed that of the heretic king, Akhenaten, or some other, but it may never reveal the whole story behind this mystery tomb, even though it is clear that all the evidence is not even available to us that exists.

General Site Information

• Structure: KV 55
• Location: Valley of the Kings, East Valley, Thebes West Bank, Thebes
• Owner: Tiye (?) or Akhenaten (?)
• Other designations:
• Site type: Tomb

Orientation

• Axis in degrees: 92.25
• Axis orientation: East

Site Location

• Latitude: 25.44 N
• Longitude: 32.36 E
• Elevation: 171.23 msl
• North: 99,597.776
• East: 94,079.536
• JOG map reference: NG 36-10
• Modern governorate: Qena (Qina)
• Ancient nome: 4th Upper Egypt
• Surveyed by TMP: Yes

Measurements

• Maximum height: 3.93 m
• Mininum width: 1.34 m
• Maximum width: 6.63 m
• Total length: 27.61 m
• Total area: 84.3 m�
• Total volume: 185.25 m�

Additional Tomb Information

• Entrance location: Valley floor
• Owner type: Unknown, possibly royal
• Entrance type: Staircase
• Interior layout: Corridor and chambers
• Axis type: Straight

Categories of Objects Recovered

• Accessories 
• Carpenters' and sculptors' tools 
• Furniture 
• Human mummies 
• Jewellery 
• Models 
• Scarabs and seals 
• Sculpture 
• Tomb equipment 
• Vessel stands 
• Vessels 
• Warfare and hunting equipment 
• Written documents 

Dating:

• New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, Amenhetep IV/Akhenaten (reburial under Tutankhamen)
• New Kingdom, Dynasty 20

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History of Exploration

• Ayrton, Edward Russell (1907): Discovery (made for Theodore M. Davis) 
• Ayrton, Edward Russell (1907-1908): Excavation (conducted for Theodore M. Davis) 
• Brock, Lyla Pinch (1992-1993): Excavation
  

Amenherkhepshef probably died in about the 30th year of Ramesses III's reign when he was around 15 years old (though some of his titles may indicate an older age), and was not one of the king's elder sons, though he did maintain a number of important positions within the court. We know from reliefs at Medinet Habu and the Karnak Temple that he was the fan bearer to the right of the king (a role more important then it sounds) a royal scribe and a cavalry commander. He was also the "Superior of the Two Lands, which probably saw him having a role in the management of the administrative affairs of the kingdom of Egypt. However, it should be noted that throughout his tomb, he wears the side locks of a youth. We find a stela in the Valley of the Dolmen at the sanctuary of Ptah and Meretseger with a partial image of the prince, which must have been an ex-voto in honor of him crafted by the artisans who worked on the construction of this eternal residence. He is also attested to by another fragmentary stela from Deir el-Medina, where he is in the presence of an unknown brother.

The tomb of this prince was discovered in 1903 and while it had been completely looted, probably during the 19th Dynasty, the structure itself and decorations were in excellent condition. It was discovered during the second excavation campaign conducted by the Italian Archaeological Mission conducted between 1903 and 1904.

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The tomb has a simple plan, consisting of a short flight of steps leading to a descending entrance ramp followed by an antechamber or entrance hall, which has an annex to the northwest. It is followed by the sarcophagus chamber, where the sarcophagus was originally discovered. This room also has an unfinished side annex to the northwest. Beyond the sarcophagus chamber is a chamber which was to provide access to the domain of the god Osiris, where the prince's sarcophagus is now located. 

The decorative theme of this tomb features only Amenherkhepshef and his father, along with various gods, even though one of the inscriptions tells us that it was originally quarried at the request of the king for his "great royal children". We are fairly certain that it was not used by other princes. 

Scenes on the left wall of the antechamber of Ptah, Ptah-Tatenen above
and Duamutef  and Imset below

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On the opposite wall to either side of the annex doorway, are scenes representing Ramesses III followed by the prince before Shu, Qebhsenuef, Hapy. On the rear wall of the antechamber are scenes showing Ramesses III introducing his son into the presence of the goddesses Isis (to the left and Hathor (to the right). On the left Ramesses III wears make up, and wars the nemes with the uraeus at the front. On the right wall, Hathor wishes the king "an eternity of jubilees and an eternity of life and strength". Then on the door jambs to the original sarcophagus chamber are depictions of Isis and Nephthys performing the njnj (purification) rite. Within the antechamber, we find Ramesses III wearing a rather rare three part costume, consisting of a tunic of fine, transparent fabric. The sleeves, bordered with beads, form a flounce. Over this is worn a corselet adorned by two embroidered falcons on the flaps, which clings to the upper part of the chest and the shoulders of the king. Finally, there is a loincloth at the front, with the classic apron over it. The annex leading off of this chamber is undecorated.

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On the inside of the door jambs of the sarcophagus chamber are scenes to either side depicting Horus Iun-mutef. On the left wall we encounter chapters 145 and 146 of the Book of the Dead. Here, the pharaoh is followed by the prince  before texts, doors and the genies Iukenty (with an ox's head) and Qutgetef, related to the seventh and eighth gates, respectively, of the kingdom of Osiris. On the opposite wall we also find the same chapters from the Book of the Dead, but here the genies are Heneb-reku (with a black dog's head) and Sematy (with a ram's head)  from the fifth and sixth gates, respectively, of the kingdom of Osiris. On the architrave leading to the last chamber we find the winged solar disk representing the god Horus-Behedety above two uraei serpents representing the goddesses Wadjet and Nekhbet carrying Shen symbols surrounding the royal names. The last room is undecorated. 

Left: The lintel leading to the rear annex; Right: Text from the Book of the Dead

Recent research has revealed that Amenherkhepshef was never buried in this tomb. As it turns out, another sarcophagus, originally designed for Queen Tausert, was altered for this son of Ramesses III and discovered in the tomb of chancellor Bay (KV13).  We really have no idea why this tomb was not used for the prince's burial.

Little in the way of artifacts were discovered in this tomb. The unfinished pink granite sarcophagus was found in the sarcophagus chamber but was later moved to the rear most chamber. Schiaparelli discovered a small wooden casket holding a fetus which had originally been wrapped in the bandages used for the process of embalming in the Valley of Prince Ahmes, a lateral wadi opening into the lowest part of the southern side of the Valley of the Queens. Today, the remains are contained in a small urn housed in the rear chamber of QV55.

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Ramesses III with Isis

This is a large tomb with complex architecture, though very similar in many respects to the tomb of Tuthmosis III.  Like other tombs in the valley, there are two sets of stairways and two corridors prior to the ritual shaft.  New for this tomb are decorations depicting the king performing ritual acts before Osiris, Anubis and Hathor. From the ritual shaft, the tomb takes a 90 degree turn into the two pillared vestibule. Wide flight of stairs leads out of the vestibule into a third corridor and then into a large, six pillared room.  This room has images of the king in the presence of various deities.

At the back (south) of the six pillared room beyond the last set of pillars is the burial chamber. The burial chamber contains the kings red quartzite sarcophagus and until 1928, the mummy of the king.  The mummy was transferred to the Cairo Museum at that time.  However, this is one of the surprises in this tomb, for unlike other tombs in the valley, Amenophis II's mummy was found intact, with a garland of mimosa flowers at his neck, though the coffin he was laid in was perhaps a replacement.  Normally, tomb robbers would search the mummies for gold amulets and other valuable objects, but for some reason they ignored the mummy of this king.

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There is one annex to either side of the six pillared room, and two more annexes, one one each side of the burial chamber. The burial chamber includes the complete text of the Book of Amduat, including the corresponding illustrations.  The whole text is laid out as though on a huge papyrus. This text, in simple paint (no reliefs), is in cursive hieroglyphs. On the ceiling is the familiar pattern of gold stars on a dark blue background.

Within the the western lateral annex, which was enclosed by a stone wall, Loret found his second surprise, for here he found the sarcophagi and mummies of nine other royal burials, as well as his son, Webensenu, and probably his mother, Hatshepsut-Meryetre.  These included Tuthmosis IV, Amenophis III, Merneptah, Sethos II, Siptah, Setenakhte, Ramesses IV, Ramesses V and Ramesses VI.  In all, he found remains of 17 royal burials in the cache. This cache was likewise note violated. Hence, Loret's discovery of this tomb ranks high in the annuls of Egypotology. 

We believe it was the high priest Pinudjem I (1070-1037 BC) who had these mummies stored in Amenophis II's tomb at the beginning of the 21st Dynasty, just as Pinudjem II (990-969 BC) transferred the mummies found in the Deir el-Bahri cache.

Though the tomb had been robbed, perhaps more than once in antiquity, there were a number of items found within the tomb by Loret.  These objects ranged from the magical to the mundane. Some of these included:

• A papyrus with extracts from the Book of Caverns
• Emblems in wood
• A broken Osiris bed
• At least one large wooden funerary couch
• Large wooden figure of serpent found near the entrance to the antechamber
• Three barues
• Large wooden Sekhmet figure that was made for the kings son, Webensenu
• Almost life-size cow head statue found in the sepulchral hall
• Vases of green porcelian (faience)
• Resin-coated wooden panther
• 30 empty storage jars
• Miniature wooden coffins

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However, Loret found hundreds of other objects and considerable debris.

General Site Information

• Structure: KV 35

• Location: Valley of the Kings, East Valley, Thebes West Bank, Thebes

• Owner: Amenhotep II

• Other designations:

• Site type: Tomb

Orientation

• Axis in degrees: 289.09

• Axis orientation: West

Site Location

• Latitude: 25.44 N

• Longitude: 32.36 E

• Elevation: 185.5 msl

• North: 99,499.394

• East: 93,969.126

• JOG map reference: NG 36-10

• Modern governorate: Qena (Qina)

• Ancient nome: 4th Upper Egypt

• Surveyed by TMP: Yes

Measurements

• Maximum height: 3.44 m

• Minimum width: 0.94 m

• Maximum width: 10.15 m

• Total length: 91.87 m

• Total area: 362.85 m²

• Total volume: 852.21 m³

Additional Tomb Information

• Entrance location: Cliff face

• Owner type: King

• Entrance type: Staircase

• Interior layout: Corridors and chambers

• Axis type: Bent

Decoration

• Painting 

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Categories of Objects Recovered

• Accessories 

• Architectural elements 

• Clothing 

• Food 

• Human mummies 

• Jewelry 

• Models 

• Sculpture 

• Tomb equipment 

• Vegetal remains 

• Vessels 

• Warfare and hunting equipment 

• Written documents 

Dating:

• New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, Amenhotep II

• Third Intermediate Period, Dynasty 21

History of Exploration

• Loret, Victor (1898): Discovery (made for the Service des Antiquit�s) 

• Bucher, Paul (1932): Photography 

• Hornung, Erik (1982-1992): Epigraphy 

Afterwards, they were followed by a number of 19th century adventurers who seem to have carried off any number of small objects as souvenirs of their visit. Even Flinders Petrie and Francis Llewellyn Griffith were guilty of this, and a few people even went so far as to carve out small parts of the beautifully painted surfaces a number of scenes, that are now mostly all in Paris at the Louvre. After such a brutal defacement of an exquisitely decorated monument, there is little reason to wonder why the current Egyptian government is seeking the return of many such artifacts to their rightful place.

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Archaeological Excavations

While Theodore Davis, Howard Carter's predecessor in the Valley of the kings, carried out a superficial clearance and investigation of the tomb between 1905 and 1914, he left almost no details of his findings. Only with Carter under the patronage of Lord Carnarvon came the first seriously examination of the structure during the spring of 1915. Carter, the famous discoverer of the tomb of Tutankhaman, became interested in the tomb after having acquired three fine hard stone bracelets plaques from a Luxor antiquities dealer that were inscribed with the name of Amenhotep III and his chief queen, Tiy (Tiye). Apparently the original precious metal mounts had been removed in antiquity, and rumor had it that these items had been found in the vicinity of the tomb. Hence, Carter thought there might be other valuable objects remaining to be discovered. 

Right: A drawing of one of Howard Carter's bracelet plaques

He began by clearing around the mouth of the water course beneath the entrance to the tomb followed by excavating immediately in front of the entrance, which yielded a number of objects before actually entering the tomb proper. These included a fragmentary foot from a Shabti figure of Queen Tiy, along with bits and pieces of faience and glass thrown from the tomb in ancient times recovered from the water course. From the entrance he found five intact foundation deposits and one robbed emplacement. 

Within the tomb, he mostly worked sections that were neglected by earlier investigators, most notably the deep well shaft. Of course, this yielded a number of objects, including a fine hub from a chariot wheel and interestingly, one more small fragment of a bracelet plaque made of faience.

However, Howard Carter did not limit his excavation completely to neglected areas of the tomb. He also worked in the burial chamber that had already been worked by Davis, where he discovered a fragment of the king's calcite canopic chest. Other items would later be recovered from the debris outside the tomb.

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However, Carter was not the last to examine this tomb. As recently as 1989, a Japanese team led by Sakuji Yoshimura and Jiro Kondo of Waseda University, after having excavated at Amenhotep III's palace complex to the south, also decided to have a follow up look into this structure. This modern effort was, of course, highly systematic, and the team cleared the tomb down to the bedrock. That investigation yielded a seventh, smaller (and uninscribed) foundation deposit, together with several hundred fragments of funerary material. The foundation deposit consisted of the head and small bones of a calf, five miniature pottery vessels, a wooden model cradle and a wooden carving of a symbolic rope knot, all placed in a reed basket. 

Salt leeching through the walls of the tomb resulted in the paintings crumbling away from the walls. The columns inside the tomb have also started to show evidence of salt damage. Fortunately, the Japanese team also began restoration and preservation work on the tomb.

Tomb Layout

This tomb differed in several respects from those of Amenhotep III's predecessors, though not necessarily in its overall design. It was located, for the first time relative to royal tombs, in the slope away from the cliff face, and internally, only very specific elements underwent modification, mostly in their locations. In fact, the most deviate constructs is a room cut at the base of the well shaft, the communication between the anteroom and the burial chamber, the orientation of the burial chamber and the addition of two large rooms to the crypt, each of which have a pillar and storage annexes.

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The tomb entrance is through a corridor  leading off approximately to the east that in turn is followed by a second corridor, a second set of stairs, a third corridor and then the well shaft. After the well shaft there is a two pillared hall that is oriented mostly north and south, from which a stairway leads off to the north followed by a corridor and then another stairway before communicating with the antechamber. The antechamber leads almost directly into the burial chamber which is oriented in a more or less east-west direction. It has six pillars in two rows and between the rear two rows a short stairway leads to the actual burial crypt. Within the floor of the crypt are found two recesses, including a canopic niche, though both are suspiciously rough and may be unfinished. Some eleven niches in the walls have been noted around the crypt, and originally there seems to have been wooden doors leading into the sarcophagus chamber. There are annexes on both the north and south sides of the pillared section of the chamber, with another south of the crypt. One of the single pillared suites leads off to the south, while the second leads from the rear, or east side of the main crypt. There are niches at both entrances to these pillared rooms, and they too seem to have once had wooden doors.  

It was this second of the two pillared rooms that apparently was meant for Tiy'sburial, and both Carter and the Japanese team found objects that might evidence this conclusion. It is possible that the second suite of rooms, expanded from an original storeroom, was actually meant for his wife and daughter, Sitamun. In fact, we find a parallel in his palace, where Amenhotep III apparently squeezed in a set of rooms between his own and those of Tiy for this princess who was promoted to Royal wife.  

Decorations

We find some new elements in the decorations of Amenhotep III's tomb. Few decorations exist prior to the well shaft, but for the first time we find find the king shown with the royal ka before the goddesses Hathor and Nut. It is only now that this Western deity is clearly defined apart from the aspect of Hathor. On the walls of the well shaft, Hathor leads one group of deities while Nut leads another. Here, the deceased king's entry into the western realm of the dead is depicted. Also in the well shaft is a scene showing Hathor receiving both the king and the ka (soul) of his father, Tuthmosis IV. Unfortunately, these scenes were rather poor even in 1799 at the time of their discovery. 

Right: Amenhotep III and his father, Tuthmosis IV, accompanied by his father's ka

The antechamber walls were also decorated with scenes of the king before various deities, while in the burial chamber we find similar scenes, as well as depictions from the Amduat. 

In addition to the formal decorations of the tomb, the Japanese team also discovered interesting graffiti between the antechamber and the stairway giving into the antechamber. It reads, "Year 3, 3rd month of akhet-season, day 7". While its meaning is unclear, this may be the date that Amenhotep III was enclosed within the tomb. If true, this inscription may someday shed light on any co-regency that Amenhotep III might have shared with his son, Akhenaten, a matter of much debate.

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Funerary Equipment and other Fragmentary Objects

Virtually nothing was recovered from this tomb in one piece, and most of the wooden objects were chopped into find pieces during antiquity in order to deliberately hide the various robberies of the tomb. In fact, all precious metal coverings had been stripped, along with metal fittings and glass or semi-precious stone inlays, which were then all carried away. Some of this material was recovered by none other than Howard Carter in 1902 while he was working for Theodore Davis outside the tomb of KV36. However, these fragments, including later objects recovered by the Japanese team, indicate that Amenhotep III must have been surrounded by a broad range of funerary equipment not unlike that found in the tomb of Tutankhamun. The king was apparently placed in a series of gilded and inlaid anthropoid wooden coffins, with the inner coffin and/or mask probably of solid gold, and an outer shrine like sarcophagus. The sarcophagus was, for the first time that we know of, made of red granite rather than quartzite. The inner coffin is possibly evidenced by a superb cobra head of lapis lazuli with inlaid eyes set in gold. It was found in the debris of the antechamber, and appears to come from a mask or coffin. 

The Burials

No actual bodies were recovered from this tomb, and there is considerable doubt as to whether Queen Tiy or Sitamun were ever buried in the tomb. It is likely that Amenhotep III was, but his mummy was later moved to a side room in the tomb of Amenhotep II(KV35). Victor Loret found it there in 1898, beneath a docketed shroud recording its restoration in the 12th or 13th year of King Smendes rule in the 21st Dynasty. However, there remains some doubt that this was actually his body. Loret also discovered the mummy initially termed the "Elder Lady", which many now believe to be that of Tiy. 

However, another tomb in the Valley of the Kings numbered KV55 has also yielded evidence of Queen Tiy's burial. She most likely died during the reign of her son, Akhenaten, who provided her with a gilded shrine recovered by Davis from KV55, along with a red granite sarcophagus, fragments of which were found in a royal tomb at Amarna. Whether buried in WV22 or KV55, she was very likely buried initially in this Amarna tomb. 

Above Left: The Mummy thought to be that of Queen Tiy; Right: The lid of the coffin of Amenhotep III

Clearly, Amenhotep III intended for Tiy (and probably Sitamun as well) to be buried in WV22. However, it is possible that, given the fact that Tiy outlived her husband, rather than disturbing his already sealed tomb, alternate arrangements were made.

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General Site Information

Structure: KV 22

• Location: Valley of the Kings, West Valley, Thebes West Bank, Thebes
• Owner: Amenhotep III
• Other designations: 22 [Lepsius], a [Burton], Tombeau isol� de l'ouest [Description],
  W. 1 [Wilkinson], WV 22, WV22
• Site type: Tomb

Orientation

• Axis in degrees: 95.85
• Axis orientation: East

Site Location

• Latitude: 25.44 N
• Longitude: 32.36 E
• Elevation: 171.11 msl
• North: 99,682.550
• East: 93,539.550
• JOG map reference: NG 36-10
• Modern governorate: Qena (Qina)
• Ancient nome: 4th Upper Egypt
• Surveyed by TMP: Yes

Measurements

• Maximum height: 4.98 m
• Minimum width: 0.79 m
• Maximum width: 8.42 m
• Total length: 126.68 m
• Total area: 554.92 m�
• Total volume: 1485.88 m�

Additional Tomb Information

• Entrance location: Hillside
• Owner type: King
• Entrance type: Staircase
• Interior layout: Corridors and chambers
• Axis type: Bent

Decoration

• Grafitti 
• Painting 

Categories of Objects Recovered

• Accessories 
• Architectural elements 
• Carpenters' and sculptors' tools 
• Furniture 
• Human mummies 
• Human remains 
• Jewelry 
• Lighting equipment 
• Mammal remains 
• Models 
• Sculpture 
• Tomb equipment 
• Transport 
• Vessels 
• Warfare and hunting equipment 
• Written documents
  

Dating:

• New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, Amenhotep III
• New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, Tuthmosis IV
• Third Intermediate Period

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History of Exploration

• Jollois, P. (1799): Discovery (but tomb may actually have been known to William
  George Browne)
• Napoleonic Expedition (1799): Epigraphy
• Napoleonic Expedition (1799): Mapping/planning
• Devilliers du Terrage, R�n� �douard (1799): Discovery (but tomb may actually have been
  known to William George Browne)
• Gordon, J. (1804): Visit
• Franco-Tuscan Expedition (1828-1829): Epigraphy
• L'H�te, Nestor (1829): Visit
• Lepsius, Carl Richard (1844-1845): Epigraphy
• Loret, Victor (1898-1899): Epigraphy
• Davis, Theodore M. (1905-1914): Excavation
• Carter, Howard (1915): Excavation (discoveryy of five foundation deposits for Earl of
  Carnarvon)
• Piankoff, Alexandre (1959): Epigraphy
• Hornung, Erik (1959): Photography
• Hornung, Erik (1959): Epigraphy
• Waseda University (1989-): Excavation
• Waseda University (1989-): Conservation
  

Amenmesses is generally considered to be the 5th ruler of Egypt's 19th Dynasty, though most Egyptologists believe he was probably not the legitimate heir to the throne. He succeeded Merneptah as pharaoh, but it was probably Merneptah's son, prince Seti-Merneptah who should have ascended the throne on his father's death. Various theories exist about why he did not. It is very possible that Merenptah may have died suddenly while the crown prince was away, and Amenmesses simply took advantage of the situation. Interesting, but not unpredictable, is that this disorder came only a generation after the strong, but long rule of Ramesses II (Ramesses the Great).

However, it is also very likely that Seti-Merneptah was no other then Seti II, who ruled Egypt just after Amenmesses. It was probably Seti II who scraped the images and inscriptions from that kings monuments, and otherwise usurped Amenmesses' building projects. Therefore, very little is known about this king, who apparently ruled for three or four years. Various Egyptologists give him a reign from between 1202 - 1199 BC and 1203 - 1200 BC.

Amenmesses would have been his birth name, but a Greek version. Manetho called him Ammenemes and assigned five years to his rule, though we may also find his named as Amenmeses. His Egyptian name was probably Heqa-waset, which means "Fashioned by Amun, Ruler of Thebes". His throne name was Men-mi-re Setep-en-re, meaning "Eternal like Re, Chosen by Re. 

It was long believed that Amenmesses was a son of Merneptah by a queen Takhat, though really his origins are unknown, and that he probably married a woman named Baktwerel. However, some Egyptologists have suggested that Takhat and Baktwerel were actually the mother and wife of Ramesses IX. Originally, his parentage was based on the fact that there were scenes and inscriptions related to these two women in Amenmesses tomb, but recent  excavations seem to indicate that the tomb, originally meant for Amenmesses was actually usurped for these women. If so, this would probably negate any argument of them being his mother and wife.

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There is enough confusion surrounding Amenmesses that some Egyptologists actually place his rule after that of Seti II. Yet, Seti II's name has been written over the name of Amenmesses in several Theban locations, it is generally believed that Seti II succeeded him. Still others believe that Amenmesses usurped Seti II in the middle of Seti II's reign, sometime between years three and five of his rule, which would seem more probable then him ruling after Seti II. It is also possible that Amenmesses only ruled the southern parts of Egypt during Seti IIs reign. If this is true, he may have been a vizier over Nubia named Messui during the time of Merneptah, but this theory has recently been called into question. There has even been speculation that a queen Ti'a, supposed mother of Saptah, the penultimate ruler of the dynasty, may have been a wife of Amenmeses, thus making him the father of the successor to Sety II as part of a rival dynastic branch. 

It should also be noted that Amenmesses usurped a number of preexisting monuments himself, and though we now believe that tomb KV 10 in the Valley of the Kings was originally began by this king, little other building work exists. Inscriptions bearing his name are mostly only found in Upper Egyptian sites, primarily in the Theban region and in Nubia. These include inscriptions at Karnak, a dedication inscription at the small temple at Medinet Habu, an inscriptions at a chapel at Deir el-Medine and a stela found at Buhen. Perhaps as many as six quartzite statues originally placed along the axis of the hypostyle hall in the Amun Temple at Karnak are thought to be his, though these were also usurped (in the name of Seti II).  However, one of these statues thought to belong to Amenmesses has an inscription bearing the title, "the Great Royal Wife"  Takhat, lending support to the argument that she actually was his wife. Amenmesses was also, among others, responsible for restoration work on a barque shrine dating from Tuthmosis III that stands before a small temple at Tod.

The Tomb of Amenmesses (KV 10)

Amenmesses' tomb cannot be visited as it is being excavated, and unless some sort of amazing recovery process is discovered, it may never be a popular tourist attraction. The tomb, located in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes) is mostly incomplete, and much of its decorations have been destroyed.

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The tomb has been known since antiquity, and there are signs that it has been visited from classical times. Pococke noted it on hs map of the area in 1743 and it was examined by Burton and Hays, Champollion, Lepsius and Wilkinson during the early 19th century. The decorations of the tomb were mostly recorded and published by Edgene Lefebure in 1883. In the excavation season of 1907 Edward Ayrton used the tomb's corridor as a dinning or work room.

However, full scale investigation of the tomb is currently underway by Otto Schaden as a project of the University of Arizona and the University of Memphis. There is little doubt that the results will shed light on this dim corner of Egyptian history. It would seem though, at the moment, that we still do not know whether Amenmesses was ever interred here, or the actual relationship he might have had with Takhat and Baketwerel, for whom part of the tomb was redecorated.

Left: Ruined scene depicting Amenmesses

The tomb is a fairly simple affair, and as stated, unfinished. Three descending corridors lead down to a room where the ritual shaft was to be dug, but never was. Within these corridors, we find scenes of king Amenmesses (destroyed) before Re-Horakhty, passages (scenes) from the Litany of Re, the Amduat and in the well room, a scene of Takhat making offerings before deities. 

After the shaft room, where the tomb becomes level,  is the first four pillared hall, with several more scenes. They include Baketwerel making offerings before the gods, and scenes from the Book of the Dead. To the west of the four pillared hall is an unfinished annex. The ceiling of this chamber has been penetrated by the tomb of Ramesses III  (KV 11). The original decorative program of the tomb never reached beyond the four pillared hall, though up to that point it was almost identical to that found in the tomb of Merenptah (KV 8). Later, the outer corridors, shaft room and four pillared hall were plastered over and redecorated for Takhat and Baketwere, who we know were royal women. We just do not know their exact position in regards to their son and husband, because the redecoration calls into question their relationship to Amenmesses. Some of this later decoration has fallen off, so that now we find some of the original and some of the later decorations. 

After the four pillared hall there is another corridor leading to the burial chamber. However, the burial chamber is in reality another corridor that was adapted as for this purpose.

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There were three mummies found within the tomb including those of two women and a man. They have never been identified. However, fragments of canopic jars and part of a red granite sarcophagus lid, usurped itself from someone named Anketemheb, both inscribed with the name of Takhat, probably indicate that at least she was buried here, so one of the mummies may be hers. Little else has been found (and at least reported at this time). Much of what was found within the tomb was actually intrusive, including fragmentary shabti figures from Seti I, sarcophagus fragments of Ramesses VI and a few other items.

General Site Information

• Structure: KV 10
• Location: Valley of the Kings, East Valley, Thebes West Bank, Thebes
• Owner: Amenmeses
• Other designations: 10 [Lepsius], 16 [Hay], 4e Tombeau à l'est [Description], G
  [Burton], L, plan L [Pococke]
• Site type: Tomb

Orientation

• Axis in degrees: 191.04
• Axis orientation: South

Site Location

• Latitude: 25.44 N
• Longitude: 32.36 E
• Elevation: 174.445 msl
• North: 99,552.060
• East: 94,071.652
• JOG map reference: NG 36-10
• Modern governorate: Qena (Qina)
• Ancient nome: 4th Upper Egypt
• Surveyed by TMP: Yes

Measurements

• Maximum height: 3.84 m
• Minimum width: 0.98 m
• Maximum width: 9.47 m
• Total length: 105.34 m
• Total area: 350.27 m²
• Total volume: 821.23 m³

Additional Tomb Information

• Entrance location: Base of sloping hill
• Owner type: King
• Entrance type: Ramp
• Interior layout: Corridors and chambers
• Axis type: Straight

Decoration

• Graffiti
• Painting
• Raised relief
• Sunk relief

Categories of Objects Recovered

• Tomb equipment
• Vessels
  

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Dating:

• New Kingdom, Dynasty 19, Amenmeses
• New Kingdom, Dynasty 20, (tomb re-used for burial of Queen Takhat and Baketwerel)
• Graeco-Roman Era

History of Exploration

• Pococke, Richard (1737-1738): Mapping/planning
• Burton, James (1825): Mapping/planning ( to rear of tomb)
• Wilkinson, John Gardner (1825-1828): Mapping/planning
• Hay, Robert (1825-1835): Mapping/planning
• Franco-Tuscan Expedition (1828-1829): Epigraphy
• Lepsius, Carl Richard (1844-1845): Epigraphy (copying of scenes in gates B, E and F and dry squeezes of Baketwerel)
• Lef�bure, Eug�ne (1883): Epigraphy
• Ayrton, Edward Russell (1907): Excavation (most of corridor B for Theodore M. Davis)
• Schaden, Otto J. (1992-1999): Excavation (clearance from gate C to end of tomb)
• Schaden, Otto James (1997-2000): Conservation
  

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Ay's tomb is designated WV 23 and is a fairly simple affair as royal tombs go in the Valley of the Kings. It has a fairly straight axis, though the burial chamber is offset. Typically, tombs of this era usually had corridors that were offset from the axis, so Ay's tomb built in the 18th Dynasty seems to anticipate the stylistic attributes of the 20th Dynasty tombs. It was only recently opened to the public, after the tomb was restored However, it has no pillared halls, or even a ritual shaft, as we find in most royal tombs.

The tomb was discovered in the winter of 1816 by Belzoni who carved his name and the date on the rock at the side of the entrance.  It had been looted in antiquity, and also seems to have been the object of deliberate mutilation.

Upon entering the tomb, a stairway is first encountered, leading to the first corridor.  After this corridor is another steep stairway leading to the second corridor.  This corridor first leads to a vestibule, and then the burial chamber, which is offset to the right (northeast).  Behind the burial chamber is the tombs one storage annex, in this case, often referred to as the canopic chamber.

Only the burial chamber is decorated, and even here, the decorations form a simple scheme. However, some of the paintings are both interesting and unusual. Perhaps this tomb is most famous for a bird and hippopotamus hunting scene. Ay, holding decoy ducks, and his first wife, Teye are also depicted within this double scene. Most royal tombs of this period rarely departed from a religious theme.

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On the southwest wall of the tomb in the top register we find a scene depicting the goddess Nephthys standing behind a boat carrying the nine gods of the Ennead, consisting of Re-Horakhty in front, followed by Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis and Horus. Behind Nephthys is another boat carrying two falcon standards.

On the rear wall (northwest), we find a scene with Ay, sometimes with his ka.  He is receiving offerings from Nut and is embraced by Osiris. Turning the corner, on the northeast wall we find the scene of the twelve baboons representing the first stage of the Book of Amduat. Above the entrance to the storage annex is a rare scene depicting the four sons of Horus shown as mummified royal figures holding flails, but not crooks.  On the left are Duamutef and Qebhsenuef wearing the crowns of Upper Egypt, while on the right are Amsety and Hapy wearing the crowns of Lower Egypt.

Not much in the way of funerary equipment was found in this tomb.  Large fragments of the kings sarcophagus were recovered, but Ay's mummy has never been found. The sarcophagus was at one time moved to the Egyptian Antiquities Museum in Cairo, but after repairs were completed and the tombs burial chamber cleared by Otto Schaden from the University of Minnesota in 1972, the sarcophagus was returned to the tomb. This red quartzite sarcophagus is very similar to Tutankhamun's  with carved images of Isis, Nephthys, Selkis and Neith at its corners protecting the deceased. 

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General Site Information

• Structure: KV 23

• Location: Valley of the Kings, West Valley, Thebes West Bank, Thebes

• Owner: Ay

• Other designations: 1 [Belzoni], 23 [Lepsius], b [Burton], Schai [Prisse d'Avennes and
  L'Hote], W. 2 [Wilkinson], WV 23, WV23

• Site type: Tomb

Orientation

• Axis in degrees: 296.44

• Axis orientation: Northwest

Site Location

• Latitude: 25.44 N

• Longitude: 32.36 E

• Elevation: 197.49 msl

• North: 99,267.509

• East: 93,177.253

• JOG map reference: NG 36-10

• Modern governorate: Qena (Qina)

• Ancient nome: 4th Upper Egypt

• Surveyed by TMP: Yes

Measurements

• Maximum height: 5.44 m

• Mininum width: 1.51 m

• Maximum width: 8.89 m

• Total length: 60.16 m

• Total area: 212.22 m�

• Total volume: 618.26 m�

Additional Tomb Information

• Entrance location: Base of sheer cliff

• Owner type: King

• Entrance type: Staircase

• Interior layout: Corridors and chambers

• Axis type: Straight

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Decoration

• Painting 

Categories of Objects Recovered

• Human remains 

• Sculpture 

• Tomb equipment 

• Vessels 

• Writing equipment 

Dating:

• New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, Ay

History of Exploration

• Belzoni, Giovanni Battista (1816): Discovery (made for Henry Salt) 

• Belzoni, Giovanni Battista (1816): Excavation (conducted for Henry Salt) 

• Lepsius, Carl Richard (1824): Epigraphy 

• Wilkinson, John Gardner (1824): Visit 

• Burton, James (1825): Visit 

• Carter, Howard (1908): Excavation (removal of sarcophagus fragments to Cairo for

• Gaston Maspero, who had them re-assembled and displayed in the Egyptian Museum) 

• Piankoff, Alexandre (1958): Epigraphy 

• Schaden, Otto J. (1972): Excavation (conducted for the University of Minnesota) 

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One enters this tomb through a courtyard and then through a very brief corridor leading into a transverse vestibule. Though there is a decoration in the corridor, it is a highly fragmented scene of a title being conferred and of the deceased at worship.

Within the vestibule, on the left front wall we first encounter encounter a scene depicting the deceased worshipping before offerings. However, the next scene portrays Benia apparently performing his duties, which included weighing and storing gold, silver, ivory, ebony and turquoises, as two scribes meticulously records the event. Here, the items are being weighed on a scale with a counterweight shaped as a small calf. Benia is shown examining the entries in three ledgers. 

On the short southern wall, is a stele with text, alongside Benia kneeling in the act of offering. In front of this scene in the floor of the vestibule is a ritual shaft.

On the back left wall of the vestibule we find a scene depicting musicians, including a harpist and lute player playing at Benia's funeral banquet. The musicians are being followed by three applauding men. The deceased's parents sit before the musicians with a table before them with offerings. Here, the mother, Tirukak, is affectionately embracing her husband, Irtonena, and under her seat is a mirror. Other male quests also appear within this scene. In another scene on this wall, we find Benia before a table of offerings, with an unknown man making an offering.

On the right rear wall, we find Benia, as "Overseer of Works", seated before a table of offerings. Benia, who is seated and wielding a stick, is inspecting the bearers and offerings, which consist of cattle, birds, fish, lotus flowers and a variety of food. This is broken up into a number of scenes in three registers.

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On the short northern wall of the vestibule we find a stele, over which are depicted two udjat-eyes. Beside this scene is another of Benia kneeling in an act of offering. On the right front wall of the vestibule is a scene showing the deceased before a table of offerings where he is receiving gifts.

Entering the rear chapel, on the long left (southern) wall, we find a scene depicting the funeral procession and offerings to the goddess Hathor Imentit who carries a scepter. There is also a scene of the deceased before a table of offerings. At the rear short wall of this chamber is a statue niche, with seated statues of the deceased, along with his mother and father.

Finally, on the northern long wall of the chapel is a scene showing the deceased, once again, before a table of offerings.  There is also a scene of these offerings being purified, the pilgrimage to Abydos, and another depicting the "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony.

KV 42, which was never finished, is situated in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank of Luxor (ancient Thebes) leading up to the tomb of Tuthmosis III. This is the south branch of the southwest wadi.

Victor Loret may have discovered the tomb during his excavations in the vicinity, but it was  Howard Carter, at this time the Inspector General of the Monuments for Upper Egypt, who first entered it on December 9th, 1900. He states:

However, when the tomb was only recently cleared by the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), there still remained a barrier in place at the entrance to the first stairway. It had suffered considerable flood damage.

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This tomb was almost certainly built by Tuthmosis III for his queen, Hatshepsut-Meryetre. However, it is more likely that she was never buried here, but rather in the tomb of her son, KV35 belonging to Amenhotep II. Though it takes a royal appearance, being larger than private tombs of the 18th Dynasty, it lacks the typical well shaft and pillared halls of a royal burial, though it did have two pillars within the burial chamber (both of which are badly damaged). It also lacks the annexes normally found in kingly burials. This tomb may have been reused by Sennefer, mayor of Thebes, Senetnay, his wife who was the royal wet-nurse, and Baketra, the "king's adornment," during the reign of Amenhetep II or used as a cache for materials from their burials elsewhere. Carter found fragments of funerary equipment that indicated that the tomb had been used for some such purpose. 

This tomb consists of an initial steep stairway leading to a steep, wide corridor that in turn communicates with stairwell chamber followed by a second chamber with no pillars. From their the orientation takes a left turn towards the northeast into a final corridor before reaching a cartouche shaped burial chamber. The burial chamber has a single, small chamber leading off to the southeast. With the exception of an unfinished celestial ceiling and a kheker-frieze in the burial chamber, the tomb is completely undecorated.

The entrance way has well cut steps and there are holes in the doorway that were used to lower the sarcophagus. Here, we also find graffiti telling of some work by a scribe at the end of the 20th or beginning of the 21st Dynasty. It reads:

"3rd month of summer, day 23: work was begun on this tomb by the necropolis gang, when the scribe Butehamun went to the town to see the general's arrival in the north."

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Within the first corridor, the easternmost part of the ceiling remains rough. Apparently the workman encountered harder stone in this area. Some red mason marks are still visible along the right wall, as they also are on both the left and right walls of the following stairwell. In the square chamber prior to the burial chamber, an interesting feature is a bench which is built along the entire length of the right wall. Here, we find a shallow pit in the southeast section of the room, the purpose of which is unclear. The floor of the room gently slopes down towards the doorway to the last, short corridor. The burial chamber itself lies on a west-east axis. The westernmost of the pillars is damaged, while the east one is badly broken. :There are several copper pins at the top of the west wall, with holes remaining for other pins in the other walls. These may have been used for plumb bobs. 

The sarcophagus may be found in the east part of the burial chamber. It is made of stone, and appears to have never been used, as it is unpolished, undecorated and seemingly had not been placed in its proper resting place in the tomb The small annex leading off the burial chamber is trapezoidal in shape.

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About the decorations

The walls of the burial chamber were plastered, but the decorative theme was never completed. A star pattern of yellow stars on a blue background adorns the ceiling, while the kheker-frieze surmounts a band of color below. 

The kheker frieze art work appears to have been in vogue during the time of Tuthmosis III. They were also featured in a chapel of this king at Deir el Bahari and revived during Greek times in Egypt. Khekers with splayed tops were found in the tombs of Tuthmosis I (KV38), Tuthmosis III (KV34) and Amenhotep III (WV23).

It has been said that this pattern work represents knots with plant stems, and were used not only for decoration but also had religious significance. It seems that they referred back to the primeval home of the god, the national shrine, and symbolize the 'first time' when the gods ruled Egypt). However, it has also been argued that they represent the stylization of the fixed loops for mats or the open knotted fringes of hanging rugs. 

Discoveries within the Tomb

Carter apparently discovered limestone canopic jars, dummy vessels and an offering table along with the remains of wooden "sledges and coffins" and uninscribed items including some "twenty or thirty, whole and broken, rough earthen jars" within the small side room off the burial chamber. He also found "some gold leaf and an exquisite gold inlaid rosette" in the entrance corridor. This apparently led him to believe that the tomb was at some point used for Sennufer and his family, though we now know that this individual had a tomb elsewhere on the West Bank (TT96). Hence, most Egyptologists seem to agree today that the tomb may have been used as some sort of cache. 

However, in 1921 Carter firmly established the original owner of the tomb when he discovered foundation deposits placed at the entrance. Though she was apparently never buried in the tomb, the items carried the name of the great royal wife, Hatshepsut-Meryetre.

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General Site Information

• Structure:  42
• Location: Valley of the Kings, East Valley, Thebes West Bank, Thebes
• Owner: Hatshepsut-Meryet-Ra
• Other designations:
• Site type: Tomb

Orientation

• Axis in degrees: 178.08
• Axis orientation: South

• Latitude: 25.44 N
• Longitude: 32.36 E
• Elevation: 189.17 msl
• North: 99,347.618
• East: 94,092.1713
• JOG map reference: NG 36-10
• Modern governorate: Qena (Qina)
• Ancient: 4th Upper Egypt.
• Surveyed by TMP: Yes

• Maximum height: 4.32 m
• Minimum width: 0.86 m
• Maximum width: 7.61 m
• Total length: 58.18 m
• Total area: 184.77 m²
• Total volume: 423.6 m³

• Entrance location: Base of sheer cliff
• Owner type: Queen
• Entrance type: Staircase
• Interior layout: Corridors and chambers
• Axis type: Bent

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• Graffiti
• Painting

• Architectural elements
• Religious objects
• Tomb equipment
• Transport
• Vessels

• Loret, Victor (1899): Discovery
• Macarios, C. (1900): Excavation
• Andraos, Boutros (1900): Excavation
• Carter, Howard (1900): Excavation
• Carter, Howard (1921): Excavation (discovery of foundation deposits)
• Supreme Council of Antiquities (1999): Conservation
• Supreme Council of Antiquities (1999): Excavation

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Initially, the tomb was filled with rubble washed in by the infrequent rain over the past thousands of years.  After removing the debris from the entrance, another two days was required to clean the rubble from the tomb itself.  Unfortunately, much of the funerary equipment was in pieces due to the rubble.

In his tomb, Horemheb developed several innovations which would carry on from the 18th into the 19th dynasty tomb builders. His tomb does not have the right angle between the end of the descending corridor found in earlier 18th dynasty tombs, and he introduces painted bas-reliefs instead of the simple paintings found in earlier tombs. Also, for the first time he inscribes passages from the Book of Gates on his tomb Walls rather than those from the Amduat.  The Book of Gates is a religious composition regarding the "gates" that separate the night's twelve hours.

In addition, there are a number of idiosyncrasies in Horemheb's tomb that are never repeated.  These include a slope in the burial chamber from the first pair of pillars to the steps of the "crypt, a second set of stairs leading to the crypt, and a lower storeroom beneath the burial chamber's annex.

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Entering the tomb, the first stairway down ends in a corridor that in turn leads to a second stairway and a second corridor.  Finally one arrives at the first room with a shaft. On the walls of the shaft are paintings of two groups of deities. The first group is Hathor, Isis, Osiris and Horus, on the left, and Hathor, Anubis, Osiris and Horus to the right. Here, Isis replaces the goddess Nut found in earlier tombs. Decorations, as in earlier tombs, are limited to this shaft, the antechamber and the burial chamber proper. However, the painting are much more sophisticated then many earlier tombs, obviously produced by more skilful artists who vary the stances, gestures and clothing of the figures. There is also an extensive use of color with multicolored hieroglyphs and blue-green backgrounds.

From here the tomb leads to a two-pillar hall and then to a third corridor and finally a vestibule. The burial chamber with its six pillars and four lateral and one back annex are next.  The annexes were used to store funerary equipment.  Within the burial chamber is the king's large, red granite sarcophagus and the walls are painted with the fifth division from the Book of Gates, including a figure of Osiris. The sarcophagus is interesting from the standpoint that it incorporates features both from before and after the Amarna period, making it transitional. The gable-ended lid is completely unique.

There was considerable funerary equipment found within the tomb.  A number of wooden (cedar and acacia)  images, broken by the rubbish were discovered. Also smashed were alabaster canopic jars with portrait-headed stoppers and four miniature lion-headed embalming tables. Other items of funerary equipment included:

• Lioness headed couch
• Hippo headed couch
• Cow headed couch
• Three large Anubis figures
• A "germinating Osiris"
• Magical bricks
• Model boats
• Fixed and folding chairs
• Pall Rosettes
• Faience beads
• Wood and stone containers for embalmed provisions

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Interestingly, while Horemheb reigned for at least 28 years, his tomb was never completely finished. This would have been enough time to finish the most complex of tombs. The work was apparently started and stopped at various times, and because of this, Egyptologist have learned a great deal about how tombs were built. In particular, different stages of the decorations were left unfinished, giving Egyptologists considerable clues to the techniques used by the early artists.

General Site Information

• Structure: KV 57
• Location: Valley of the Kings, East Valley, Thebes West Bank, Thebes
• Owner: Horemheb
• Other designations:
• Site type: Tomb

Orientation

• Axis in degrees: 357.72
• Axis orientation: North

Site Location

• Latitude: 25.44 N
• Longitude: 32.36 E
• Elevation: 173.242 msl
• North: 99,518.773
• East: 94,026.915
• JOG map reference: NG 36-10
• Modern governorate: Qena (Qina)
• Ancient nome: 4th Upper Egypt
• Surveyed by TMP: Yes

Measurements

• Maximum height: 5.36 m
• Minimum width: 0.66 m
• Maximum width: 8.94 m
• Total length: 127.88 m
• Total area: 472.61 m�
• Total volume: 1328.17 m�

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Additional Tomb Information

• Entrance location: Base of sloping hill
• Owner type: King
• Entrance type: Staircase
• Interior layout: Corridors and chambers
• Axis type: Straight

Decoration

• Grafitti 
• Painting 
• Raised relief 

Categories of Objects Recovered

• Embalming equipment 
• Furniture 
• Human remains 
• Jewelry 
• Models 
• Sculpture 
• Tomb equipment 
• Vegetal remains

Dating:

• New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, Horemheb
• Third Intermediate Period, Dynasty 21

History of Exploration

• Ayrton, Edward Russell (1908): Excavation (conducted for Theodore M. Davis) 
• Ayrton, Edward Russell (1908): Discovery (made for Theodore M. Davis) 
• Davis, Theodore M. (1912): Mapping/planning 
• Burton, Harry (1923): Photography (for the Metropolitan Museum of Art) 
• Service des Antiquit�s (1934): Conservation 
• Hornung, Erik (1971): Photography (shot in color) 
• Supreme Council of Antiquities (1994-): Conservation
  

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Inherkhau and his Ba
Below Right: Inherkhau before Horus as a Hawk

On the West Bank, at Thebes, work on tombs was supervised by two foreman, one of whom was responsible for work on the left side of the tomb and the other in charge of the right side. It was a position that was probably at first appointed by the vizier, but later became hereditary. Foreman not only supervised work but also worked with a scribe to distribute materials for work and payment and they were also prominent in the local court. The foreman was assisted by a deputy, who was usually a relative.

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Inherkhau's great grandfather obtained the position of foreman during the reign of Ramesses II. The family apparently held onto this position, and we believe that Inherkau joined the workforce as an ordinary laborer, but but the age of 17 became his father's deputy foreman. He may have worked as late as the reign of Ramesses VII. 

Left: Anubis offers Inherkhau a heart. Below right: cow pattern from the upper chamber ceiling

The upper chamber has scenes from the Book of Gates, text from the Book of the Dead, and one image of Inherkhau and his wife facing kings and queens. In this last scene, the couple offers incense to kings and queens of the 18th through 20th Dynasty. On the ceiling are unusual patterns made up of rosettes and spirals intertwined with the names of Inherkau and his wife, Wabet. There are other patterns as well, and each is separated by lines of text. Another pattern depicts the heads of cattle topped with a sun disk between yellow spirals.  But the most beautiful pictures are those found in the deep burial chamber, including seventeen scenes in three registers to the left and fourteen scenes in three registers to the right. The scenes on the left mostly deal with the afterworld, while those on the right portray mythological creatures.

Cat Killing the Snake
Below Right: Thoth introduces Inherkhau to Osiris

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Upon entering the burial chamber, we encounter a scene on the left front wall of  relatives offering libations to the deceased.  The first significant scene we encounter on the left wall depicts the god Thoth introducing the deceased into the presence of Osiris. Next, we find a distinctive scene of Inherkhau dressed in leopard skin like a priest.  His head is shaved. Next there is a depiction of the souls of Pe and of Nekhen paying respect to the deceased. The next scene is a wonderful painting of a blind harpist playing before Inherkhau and his wife, while the last significant scene on this wall is a well known portrayal of the Cat of Heliopolis killing the serpent Apophis under the Persea holy tree. The cat is linked with the sun god Ra. In Egyptian mythology, the bargue of the sun god was threatened by the snake daily as it passed through the underworld. This snake is a symbol of chaos that had to be ritually killed. 

Inherkhau with his wife receive offerings from two sons, 
while surrounded by four grandchildren

Other scenes on the left wall include the deceased worshiping a benu-bird wearing the crown of the god, Osiris, the deceased worshiping Horus in the form of a falcon and Anubis offering a heart to the the mummy of the deceased. The heart was believed by the ancient Egyptians to be the seat of human intelligence and was one of the few organs not removed from the body during mummification. 

Right: Inherkhau dressed as a priest with a shaved head

The back wall of the chamber is very beautiful with a scene depicting the deceased with his two sons, Kenna and Armin, offering two torches to the god Ptah, on the left, and Osiris, on the right.

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At the rear of the right wall, the first significant scene we find is of the deceased and his wife receiving offerings from two of their sons, while four grandchildren play about their feet. In the next set of scenes, the top register depicts Inherkhau worshiping the four jackals pulling the solar bark during its nighttime journey. In the bottom register, the deceased is in the presence of five priests, the first of whom is holding a rod with a ram' head. Other scenes on the right wall depict the deceased adoring the horizon, the deceased seated with relatives, one of whom carries a snake rod,  the deceased worshipping a snake and the deceased worshipping his ba. The ba was one form of the human soul according to Egyptian mythology.

No funerary equipment has survived from Inherkhau's tomb, so it must be assumed that it was robbed during antiquity. It was visited as early as the beginning of the 19th century, and after that time, collectors have been responsible for removing scenes, but much of the tomb was spared. 

Above: Inherkhau worships the four jackals 
 
Above: Inherkhau pays homage to Pe, a mythical town in Lower Egypt
The three figures before him are incarnations of Horus, Imsety and Hapi

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The tomb has seen its hardships, as did its discoverer. Lloyd, who worked with the French Egyptologist Prisse d'Avennes at Thebes, was killed shortly after discovering the tomb when his gun accidentally discharged.

The tomb itself has suffered from fire, and damage to the reliefs at the hands of early explorers. In order to record the decorations, squeezes were performed using newspaper softened with water and pressing it onto the walls. This would transfer the color of the reliefs onto the newspaper, but at the same time, remove it from the walls. Today the tomb is almost devoid of color, though the reliefs are a wonderful display of art in motion and are full of life. 

The squeezes have been useful. At first they were in the Egyptian Museum in Boulak, but in 1886 they were moved to the Boston Museum of Fine Art. They were later examined by Dows Dunham, who found previously unrecorded details. They have been invaluable in providing some missing text from the tomb. Regrettably however, had they not been made in the first place, the detail would have remained on the walls of the tomb and today it would perhaps be more of a treasure then what we are left with.

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The tomb was apparently in use through Roman times with a number of burials. Afterwards, it apparently became the home of hermits who further damaged the interior with greasy fires. 

The tomb is in the Abd el-Qurna necropolis. It is one of several tombs, including TT 126, 295 and 102 that are clustered around a courtyard in the western end of this cemetery. All of these tombs are well crafted and probably built during the reign of Amenhotep III. There owners were probably affluent, and in the king's favor, as each has depictions of Amenhotep III. Khaemhat's tomb, specifically, is one of only four private tombs from the reign of Amenhotep III to be decorated with reliefs. It is also noteworthy that this is one of the few tombs that is specifically dated, recorded as year 30 of Amenhotep III's reign.

The plan of the tomb is a somewhat complicated variation of the standard T shape of many private tombs. It is entered down a stairway into a court with a niche for a stele. Making a left through a short corridor, one arrives in the first hall. This room contains a number of agricultural scenes, which are somewhat rare. They might have celebrated a special harvest. These scenes include men threshing and women with baskets picking up the fields, sensitive depictions of animals, tillers bending to their task while another man scatters seed and many other wonderful representations.

Examining the left front wall, we first encounter scenes depicting the measuring of crops, the recording of grain and the deceased inspecting men measuring crops. There is also a scene depicting docks and a market. On the next small southern wall we find statues of Khaemhat and a royal scribe named Imhotep. Tucked in between the statues is a relief of Khaemhat's wife, Tiyi.. Then on the back left wall is a scene recording men bringing cattle before Amenhotep III, while on the right rear wall we find Amenhotep III rewarding officials. There are apparently no decorations on the short northern wall, though on the front right wall we find various agricultural scenes.

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The short corridor leading from the first hall into a widened passage has a scene of Khaemhatt before deities. Entering the wide passage, we find scenes to the left and right.  On the left, is the funeral procession and ceremonies, while on the right is the Book of the Dead, along with the typical pilgrimage to Abydos. This passage leads into the inner room of the tomb, with paired statues to the left, right and rear. One set of statues is that of Khaemhat and Tiyi, one set is of Khaemhat and  Imhotep, and one is of Khaemhat and an unknown woman.

Within the inner room a short corridor leads to a shallow stairway that in turn leads to a tunnel that circles clockwise. It first reaches a set of small rooms and at the bottom, two larger rooms. One of these two larger rooms was probably the burial chamber, and the other meant to hold the owner's funerary equipment, though nothing was found.

A number of items were found in or near the tomb, mostly by Sir Robert Mond, a wealthy businessman and chemist. These items included wood and stone shawabtis, a shawabti box, a bronze spear-head and a Ptah-Sokar-Osiris figure. He also found three rock stele, one of which mentions Khaemhat, and the coffins of Pedamen and Khonsuiuefankh. The stele were discovered in the courtyard. 

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Khaemwaset had among his most important roles, that of Priest of Ptah in Memphis. His major titles included "Fan-bearer to the Right of the King" and "Sem-priest" as indicated by reliefs in the temple of Medinet Habu. We believe he was probably Ramesses III's oldest sons, and the latest information indicates that his mother was probably Queen Tyti. Why his father's brother rather then he ascended the throne after Ramesses III's death is unknown. 

The inscriptions on Khaemwaset's fragmentary sarcophagus indicated that he probably did not die during the reign of Ramesses III, but rather later during that of Ramesses III's brother, Ramesses IV. 

Osiris

The walls of the tomb have bas relief decorations, the painted colors of which remain in outstanding condition and are of elegant workmanship.

This tomb follows a straight axes with a descending entrance corridor leading to the first main long room, a vestibule, with offset annexes to either side.  The vestibule leads directly to a burial chamber with niches and a read annex.

Right: My the Cat - Guardian of the gates to the Kingdom of Osiris

As we enter the vestibule, on the left there is an image of Ptah followed by a scene of Ramesses III and Khaemwaset in front of Anubis and Re-Harakhty. On the right wall of this room is the king bringing offerings to Ptah-Sokar along with a representation of he and Khaemwaset presenting Geb with offerings of incense prior to being welcomed by the god Shu.

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Left: Ramesses III and Khaemwaset

From here, entering the burial chamber, we first find on the left chapters 145-146 of the Book of the Dead. Another scene shows Ramesses III being followed by the prince, and then we have scenes of the genies guarding the gates of the kingdom of Osiris (gates 10, 12, 14 and 16). On the rear wall of the chamber the king presents his son to Sekhenur (The Great Tightener), My (The Cat), Saupen (The Protector) and Dikesu-uden-bega-per-em-mut (He Who Imposes Abasement, Who Provokes Weakness and Emerges as Death).

On the right in this room we also find the chapters 145 and 146 from the Book of the Dead, the prince following the king but this time the gate watchers have opened the way for the prince. , These genies guarding the gates of the kingdom of Osiris include Dendeni "the Furious", guarding gate 9, Pefesakuef The one who inflames his brazier" guarding gate 11, Hedjiaua and bird headed Nehes-oer-em-duat (which means, "Vigilant Face Emerging from Duat")

Right: The Jackal and Lion

In these scenes, Ramesses III followed by his son head towards the obstacles (gates) to the kingdom of Osiris.  Phaemwaset will have to confront the gatekeepers with magic spells from the Book of the Dead in order to surmount these obstacles and enter the afterworld kingdom.

In the rear annex we find a scene of Anubis the Jackal, a lion and then the king along presenting offerings to Thoth and Harsiesis, who was heir to his father, Osiris. Harsiesis is shown with a falcon head, wearing the atef-crown. To the right are the genii Nebneru and Khaemwaset who takes on the form of another genii, Hery-matt and then Ramesses III making offerings in front of Horus and Shepes.  On the rear wall of this chamber is a double scene of Osiris with green skin facing Neith (left) and Nephthys (right). Emerging from a blue lotus flower at Osiris feet are the figures representing the sons of Horus, Imsety, Duamutef, Qebhsenuef and Hapy. 

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Left: Amenhotep III and Tiy, behind him.

The tomb was first explored by the German Egyptologist Adolph Erman in 1885. This investigation was later published by Heinrich Brugsch in his Thesaurus Inscriptionum Aegyptiacarum in 1891. In the 1940s, Alan Gardiner also worked the tomb and then after it was robbed in the 1940s, the Egyptian Department of Antiquities in association with the Epigraphic Survey of the University of Chicago cleared, recorded and finally published their results in 1980. 

The tomb is entered through a descending corridor that first leads to a large open court with pillared porticoes on both the east and west sides. This is the only portion of the tomb that is decorated. There is a possibility that, though most of the tomb had been constructed, at this point in its decoration the roof collapsed, and work was halted. For some reason, apparently enemies, we are told of Amen, Amenhotep IV and Kheruef, later defaced images of all three. 

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The most important scenes within the tomb are those on the west wall of the court.  However, in the corridors we find scenes of Kheruef adoring Ra, Amenhotep IV with Tiy offering wine to Ra-Horakhty and Matt, Amenhotep IV and Tiy offering incenses before Atum and Hathor, and a scene of Amenhotep IV adoring Ra- Horakty and also with Amenhotep III and Tiy. 

Left: Perhaps foreign princesses at Amenhotep III's jubilee

On the west wall of the court are a number of elegant scenes.  South of the rear doorway are important scenes that document Amenhotep III's first jubilee, which was held on the 27th day of the second month of the third season of his 30th year of rule, according to the inscriptions. These include separate scenes depicting Kheruef, Amenhotep III and queen Tiy, along with others.  Here, we find, dressed in his jubilee clothing, Amenhotep II on his throne beside Hathor and Queen Tiy. The king is awarding Kheruef the gold of Honor. We also find a scene of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiy leaving their palace and another scene where the king and queen, along with Kheruef, are being towed in a boat and met by their daughters and a number of priests. Another scene shows singers, dancers and musicians, including the first known occurrence of a round drum, or tambourine. 

To the north of the rear door of the court we find similarly styled scenes depicting Amenhotep III's third jubilee. This took place in his 37th year, and one important scene depicts the raising of the djed-pillar by the king and priests. This ritual is accompanied by singers, dancers, bought from the Western Desert Oases, as well as ritual combat involving boxing and stick fencing. 

Right: Dancers and Flutists taking part in Amenhotep III's Jubile

The erection of the Tet(Djed)-pillar was performed on the Thirtieth day of Khoiakh, as the final rite within the festival of this month. It was a symbol of stability and the act of erecting it on this day probably represented the resurrection of Osiris and the rebirth and accession of the new king. The Tet(Djed)-pillar was one of the most significant symbols of the Egyptian religion. It symbolized the idea of stability and duration.

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Also on this wall are scenes of cattle and donkeys ritually walking around the walls of Memphis, and the preparation and transport of offerings.  All of these scenes were so important to the ancient priests that a thousand years later they surrounded these images with a wall and still visited this tomb.

Dancers from the Western Desert

Khonsu's private tomb is located in the area of the Tomb of the Nobles on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes) in the Sheikh Abd el-Qurna district. Along with depictions of scenes with Tuthmosis III, there are also some good paintings relative to the god, Montu within his tomb, numbered TT31. 

The entrance to his tomb through an open courtyard is flanked by two stele. The tomb itself consists of a wide transverse hall that leads to an wide passage into first one long chamber, and then a second chamber with a niche at the back where a shrine may be found. 

Right: Birds from the rear chamber of the tomb

The the entrance itself we find a scene depicting the deceased and his family worshiping Re. On the ceiling are paintings of birds.  Once inside the transverse hall, or vestibule, on the left of the entrance there is a scene detailing the Festival of Montu with some of Khonsu's relatives (including his brother, Usermontu, a Vizier and Prophet of Montu called Huy) making offerings to Montu's barque in a procession of boats. This scene carries around to the next short wall at the left end of the vestibule, with a scene of Khonsu making offerings to the barque of Tuthmosis III inside a kiosk.

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Above: Boat on the like of the Temple of Monu
Below: Priests Carrying the barque of Monu

On the rear left wall of the vestibule we find that the barque of Montu arrives at Armant (the modern name of the god's cult center named by the Greeks, Hermonthis) were it is carried to the temple by priests, who are accompanied by dignitaries. The Montu Temple at Armant was built by Tuthmose III and part of a pillar of the temple can be seen. On the bottom registers the usual funerary scenes show women making offerings of incense and libations to Khonsu and other relatives.

Left: Priests offer incense during the funerary procession

On the architrave above the opening to the rear section of the tomb in the vestibule is a scene of offerings of incense that are made to Osiris, Hathor and Re-Harakhty, while on the right rear wall we find the deceased and his family before Osiris and Anubis, the jackal god. On the right, short wall of the transverse hall is a scene depicting the Feast of Tuthmosis III with his royal boat before his temple. The boat is received by priests and priestesses of the temple, and we also see herdsmen with their gods offering cows and goats provided by Tuthmosis III to the deceased and his family. There is also a scene of two people on their knees, praying under a group of trees.

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On the front right wall of the vestibule we find several more scenes beginning with the weighing of the soul of the deceased against the father of Ma'at. This is followed by the deceased his wife and the vizier Usermontu, brought by Harsiesis for trial by Osiris, Isis and Nephthys. At the bottom we find a funeral procession, followed by priests who offer incense to the mummy. A representation of a tomb and chapel of Deir el-Medina, the worker's village on the west bank bank is also portrayed, which is a detail that provides us with important look at the original construct of a Deir el-Medina pyramidal tomb.

Left: The deceased before Osiris and Anubis at the back of the niche of the rear chamber

Little decorations exist in the long halls behind the vestibule, but between the first and second hall, on the ceiling we find a decorations depicting grapes, while on the ceiling of the last hall there are geometric designs  is a naturalistic depiction of ducks, fledgling birds, nests and three locusts. At the back of the tomb in a niche we find a number of small scenes. On the left wall of this niche is a scene of Khonsu (not visible) in priestly dress, offering Papyrus and lotus to Nebhepetre Mentuhotep (11th Dynasty). Mentuhotep wears the white crown of Upper Egypt and grips a scepter. On the back wall of the niche is another scene, again with the deceased in priestly dressmaking offerings to Osiris and Anubis. Finally, on the right wall of the niche is a scene depicting Khonsu once again dressed as a priest making offerings to the goddess Hathor-Imentit.

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Tomb KV39 has been described as one of the most mystifying tombs in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes), and may be the oldest in the Valley as well..  It sits literally on the edge of the Valley of the Kings, and was discovered by Macarios and Andraos, two local Luxor residents in 1900. Wigall visited the tomb in 1908, but described it as being ruined. In 1966, Elizabeth Thomas drew up a ground plan of the tomb, but apparently it was based largely on conjecture. Recently, but apparently before the most recent excavations, Nicholas Reeves of the Amarna Royal Tombs Project visited the tomb, stating: 

"No-one know who was actually buried there, although some people think it was the final resting place of Amenhotep I. The whole place has an eerie, claustrophobic, slightly sinister air to it, not helped by the deep cracks criss-crossing the walls and ceiling - you get the impression the whole place could cave in on you at any moment."

However, today, Dr. John Rose is the latest scholar to have investigate the tomb, beginning in 1889 and thereafter for several seasons, and has apparently been able to somehow piece together much of its history. His study is now complete, and after careful analysis, he appears to believe that the tomb was indeed built, at least originally, for Amenhotep I.

The tomb, of little interest to most of today's tourists, lies at the head of a small wadi above the tomb of Tuthmosis III. The most interesting aspect of KV39 is its unusual plan. It appears that, what started out as a fairly ordinary corridor tomb leading westward, was abandoned at the end of the first chamber. Later, it was extended by a second long descending corridor leading off to the east, with two sets of stairs that terminated in a chamber (the East Chamber). Two the south of the original chamber, a set of stairs led to a second corridor that terminated by first a stairway and then another chamber (South Chamber). Within the southern chamber was found a pit to receive a coffin that was covered by stone slabs.

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The most recent excavations of the tomb produced over 1,50 bags of potsherds, calcite fragments, pieces of wooden coffins, textiles, fragments of metal, mud jar sealings, cordage, botanical specimens and human skeletal remains of at least nine individuals. In addition, one reason the tomb is believed to have been  Included in these finds were an unusual group of sandstone dockets bearing the cartouches in blue of Tuthmosis I, Tuthmosis II(?) and Amenhotep II. There was also a calcite fragment bearing a king's title (Amenhotep I?). We are told by Rose that a gold signet ring with the name of a famous pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty (Tuthmosis III) was also found, but he does not elaborate on this information. Due all this material, and to the large number and types of mummy bandages, as well as embalmers' material discovered at the tomb, Rose believes the site may have been used as a staging area for bodies that were relocated to the 1881 Deir el-Bahari cache.

Regrettably, in 1994, Rose suffered a stroke and has only recently been able, with the help of colleagues, to publish the results of his work. However, most of the 1,350 bags are in storage on the West Bank of Luxor. There are still about a dozen boxes in the tomb vestibule that contain additional bags of debris. Why these were not also removed is uncertain. Some have been rifled and contribute to the liter that is now strewn about the tomb opening and entrance corridor.

General Site Information

• Structure: KV 39
• Location: Valley of the Kings, East Valley, Thebes West Bank, Thebes
• Owner: Amenhetep I (?)
• Other designations: 235 [Carter]
• Site type: Tomb

Orientation

• Axis in degrees: 248.99
• Axis orientation: West

Site Location

• Latitude: 25.44 N
• Longitude: 32.36 E
• Elevation: 249.42 msl
• North: 99,122.451
• East: 94,127.795
• JOG map reference: NG 36-10
• Modern governorate: Qena (Qina)
• Ancient nome: 4th Upper Egypt

Measurements

• Maximum height: 4.94 m
• Mininum width: 0 m
• Maximum width: 3.92 m
• Total length: 101.09 m
• Total area: 193.69 m�
• Total volume: 445.1 m�

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Additional Tomb Information

• Entrance location: Hillside
• Owner type: Unknown, possibly royal
• Entrance type: Staircase
• Interior layout: Corridors and chambers
• Axis type: Bent

Categories of Objects Recovered

• Architectural elements 
• Clothing 
• Food 
• Human mummies 
• Jewelry 
• Mummy trappings 
• Religious objects 
• Tomb equipment 
• Vessels 
• Written documents 

Dating:

• New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, (Date assigned by architectural typology)

History of Exploration

• Andraos, Boutros (1900): Excavation 
• Macarios, C. (1900): Excavation 
• Macarios, C. (1900): Discovery 
• Andraos, Boutros (1900): Discovery 
• Carter, Howard (1916): Visit 
• Rose, John (1989, 1991-1994): Excavation
  

The tomb is very near his father's huge tomb (KV 7). When discovered, the tomb was full of debris and had stood open since antiquity. From the Greek and Latin graffiti, we believe that the tomb was at least accessible to at least the first pillared hall.

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While Carter discovered little in the way of funerary equipment and furniture, the tomb is very interesting because it marks a distinct transition between the tombs of the 19th and 20th Dynasty kings.  Here, there is a material decrease in the number of lateral rooms, and a dramatic increase in the height of the corridors and rooms.  He did away with the jogged axis used since the time of Horemheb and instead built the entire tomb on a single axis.  Also, for the first time, the entrance was made considerably wider then earlier tombs, giving the feeling of a more imposing facade. However, while architecturally innovative, the tomb is much more traditional in its decorative themes. 

The plan of the tomb is fairly straightforward.  There are three initial corridors that first lead to the ritual shaft.  The second of these has a stairway. In the first corridor we find the first decorations, showing the king in the presence of Re-Harakhty. There are also passages from the "Litanies of Re". The second and third corridors have texts and images related to the "Book of Amduat".

After the ritual shaft is a pillared hall with a two-pillar annex. Uniquely, this decorated room was dedicated to his father, Ramesses II. The cover of the king's sarcophagus is located in this annex. In the pillared hall, the decorations are from the "Book of Gates". After the pillared hall is a fourth corridor that leads to a vestibule and finally a fifth corridor before the burial chamber. The vestibule is decorated with scenes from the "Book of the Dead".

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The burial chamber has four annexes, two on the left and two on the right, as well as a complex of annexes at the back. The astronomical vaulted ceiling of the burial chamber itself is supported by eight pillars arranged in two rows. Here, the main decorative theme returns to the "Book of Gates", though on the right hand wall there are solar oriented scenes from the "Book of Caverns".  In the center of the burial chamber is part of the king's ornamental cartouche-shaped sarcophagus of pink granite. Actually, there were originally four stone sarcophagi, consisting of three outer containers of pink (or red) Aswan granite, and a fourth innermost sarcophagus of creamy white calcite. The outermost sarcophagus was huge, at 4.1 meters (about 13 1/2 feet) long.

It is interesting how the tomb reflects history itself.  We know that Merneptah's father, Ramesses II, lived to a very old age and that Merneptah did not mount the thrown until late in his own life.  In fact, he was probably around 70 when he became ruler of Egypt and ordered the construction of his tomb and "Millions of Years" temple.  We know that he only ruled for about ten years, and was faced with attacks by Libyans and an uprising in Nubia that distracted him from his personal monuments. 

We see all of this reflected in his tomb. Both decoratively and architecturally, the tomb is of higher quality and more impressive, echoing that of his fathers tomb, near the entrance and into the first half of the structure.  However, the deeper one travels within the tomb, the simpler and less sophisticated it becomes.   For example, towards the entrance of the tomb the decorations are excellent bas-reliefs, while further into the tomb the decorations are cruder, thought the techniques used are much faster.  Obviously, Merneptah felt he was running out of time, which we know today to be true.

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General Site Information

• Structure: KV 8

• Location: Valley of the Kings, East Valley, Thebes West Bank, Thebes

• Owner: Merenptah

• Other designations: 14 [Hay], 8 [Lepsius], D, plan B [Pococke], I [Burton], IIIe
  Tombeau � l'ouest [Description]

• Site type: Tomb

Orientation

• Axis in degrees: 280.85

• Axis orientation: West

Site Location

• Latitude: 25.44 N

• Longitude: 32.36 E

• Elevation: 178.964 msl

• North: 99,599.361

• East: 94,003.743

• JOG map reference: NG 36-10

• Modern governorate: Qena (Qina)

• Ancient nome: 4th Upper Egypt

• Surveyed by TMP: Yes

Measurements

• Maximum height: 6.46 m

• Minimum width: 0.75 m

• Maximum width: 14.86 m

• Total length: 164.86 m

• Total area: 772.54 m�

• Total volume: 2622.08 m�

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Additional Tomb Information

• Entrance location: Hillside

• Owner type: King

• Entrance type: Staircase

• Interior layout: Corridors and chambers

• Axis type: Straight

Decoration

• Graffiti 

• Painting 

• Raised relief 

• Sunk relief 

Categories of Objects Recovered

• Tomb equipment 

• Vessels 

• Writing equipment 

Dating:

• New Kingdom, Dynasty 19, Merenptah

• Graeco-Roman Era

• Byzantine Period

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History of Exploration

• Pococke, Richard (1737-1738): Mapping/planning

• Napoleonic Expedition (1799): Mapping/planning

• Burton, James (1825): Mapping/planning

• Hay, Robert (1825-1835): Mapping/planning

• Lane, Edward William (1826-1827): Visit

• Franco-Tuscan Expedition (1828-1829): Epigraphy

• Lepsius, Carl Richard (1844-1845): Excavation

• Carter, Howard (1903-1904): Conservation (installation of iron gate, brick entry stairs and lighting)

• Carter, Howard (1903-1904): Excavation (discovery of fragments of sarcophagi, canopic
  chest and shabtis)

• Brock, Edwin C. (1985-1988): Excavation (of shaft in well chamber E and floor pit in
  burial chamber J)

Yet these tombs of the high officials and and nobles of Egypt are practically unique within Egypt. While their decorative plan usually includes religious themes, they also often include scenes of ordinary life and in brilliant colors that could only survive in a tomb. They represent one of our most important sources of information on the lives of the more ordinary Egyptians. In fact, royal tombs can be monotonous, because their decorative plans follow fairly set guidelines. Private tombs can be very diverse.

Farmers Plowing Field with Two Oxen

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Nakht was a scribe, holding the title, "Astronomer of Amun" at the Karnak temple during the 18th dynasty.  His job was to study the location of stars, the sun and moon in order to schedule festivals and cult rituals for the temple. His wife, Tawy, was a musician of Amun. We know nothing about Nakht and Tawy beyond their tomb, and it is even unclear what king they served under, though some evidence points to Tuthmosis IV.

His tomb is TT 52 on the west bank.  It is located within the area of the Abd el-Qurna necropolis.  It was apparently discovered by villagers at Qurna prior to being cleared by the Antiquities Service in 1889.  In 1917, an English Egyptologists named Norman de Garis Davies and his wife, Nina published information on the tomb which received worldwide attention. 

Servant Helping Ladies with Jewelry before the Funerary Banquet

The tomb is unique in that, during the 1980's, experimental restoration and protective measures were employed to preserve the tombs decoration.  This process, involving sophisticated technology requiring complete insulation with sheets of glass over all of the vestibule walls (the only part of the tomb that is decorated), ended up being to expensive and difficult for large scale use.

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This tomb is not large, and consists of a small corridor, a vestibule, another short corridor and the chapel, which includes a niche for a statue and a shaft.

The decorative plan for this tomb does include religious depictions, showing scenes of offerings and funeral rites.  However, their are also paintings of rural life, including the cultivation of grain, digging of small canals for irrigation, harvesting, fishing and and hunting in the Nile Delta.  Actually, some of the art work in this tomb is well known.

Entering the vestibule and turning left, towards the entrance's adjoining wall, we first encounter various scenes of country life. At first we see peasants sowing seeds from a container.  They are then planted in the ground by a second peasant, using wooden utensils.  In the second scene, we find two farmers (see also Peasant Farmers) plowing fields with a wooden plow pulled by two oxen. Finally, we find two groups of peasants tossing grain in the air in order to winnow it.  Turning the corner, we find a false door, with paintings of the goddess Nut gathering offerings.  The ancient Egyptians believed that the dead could pass through the false door and inhabit statues in order to receive funerary offerings.  This idea is reinforced on the door by six offering bearers who, while kneeling, offer water, beer, wine, clothing, unguent, fruit and vegetables.  On the left back wall we find paintings of the funerary banquet.  The first scene shows a servant helping three ladies with their jewelry. The next scene is very famous, and shows three lady musicians.

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On the right rear wall of the vestibule are hunting, fishing and grape harvesting scenes.  The first painting is of Nakht's wife, Tawi, holding a small bird.  Next there is a double scene, with flocks of rising birds.  Nakhjt is portrayed with his wife and two small sons in a papyrus boat, grasping a hunting stick.  The next scene is also a double register.  The top register shows peasants gathering grapes, while others press them to make wine.  In the lower register the days catch of birds are being dragged in a net, while others are sown carefully plucking and cleaning the birds.

Harvesting Grapes, Top, and the Birds of the Hunt, Bottom

Turning the corner once again, we find bearers of offerings and priests before Nakht and his wife.  Finally, on the right hand wall back adjacent to the entrance are scenes depicting purification of the offerings before the deceased.

The dream has come true and the restoration works of Nefertari's tomb, the most beautiful and famous of all queens' tombs and the summit of art in Egypt, has been achieved...

This tomb has been a symbol of challenge. Since its discovery at the beginning of this century in 1904 by the Italian archaeologist Schiaparelli, it endured bad circumstances, and all rescue efforts were insufficient & hard to be carried out, but, there is will, there is way.

Cooperation
In 1986, the Ministry of Culture and the Egyptian Antiquities Organization in cooperation with Getty Conservation Institute insisted to save the tomb thoroughly. But this time, the work was executed in the best manner utilizing the most modern technical and artistic internationally-adopted methods.

At first, work depended on direct treatment, then scientific experiments were carried out there. Since the development of the monuments restoration and preservation techniques in the second half of the 20th century, the restoration has been changed from traditional natural art to an extensive science.

Naturally in the light of this change, large field and laboratory studies and surveys preceded the work of treatment, restoration and preservation that began in Nefertari's tomb in 1986.

The Queen
Nefertari, the favorite Queen of Ramses II, is known from myriad of her representations in the temple reliefs and colossi of the great king The dedication to her, jointly with the goddess Hathor, of the small rock temple to the north of the great temple at Abu Simbel, shows how great her influence with Ramses II must have been.

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Nefertari was not the only consort of Ramses II. Four other ladies are attested in the inscriptions of his reign to be his queens. She was not an ordinary queen, however and her situation excelled that of former ones. Her name has been rendered as "the Most Beautiful of Them"; a superlative which denotes her most exceptional position, while the designation "Hereditary Princess," listed for her in several instances, appears to be the indication of her high ranking origin in the society. Her participation in the affairs of the state is unparalleled outside the Amarna Period and is reflected in the titles assigned to her as "Great King's Wife". A political role is also reflected by the recurrent designation "Lady of Upper and Lower Egypt" and "Lady of the Two Lands".

Origin
Some Egyptologists think she was probably a daughter of King Seti 1, and thus sister or half sister of Ramses II. Other Egyptologists, however, think that her designation as "Hereditary Princess" might be in some way connected with her being representative of the Thebais. The motive that would prompt such a thesis is the weak footing of the Ramssides in Thebes; their home was in the North and they made strenuous attempts to improve their situation in the South. These Egyptologists claim that nothing is known about her parents, but it seems that she was of royal birth. Others say she is Ahmos' grand-daughter...At Gebel El-Silsileh there is a shrine of Ramses 11 where depictions show him and Queen Nefertari performing religious functions before sundry deities. This shrine contains an indication that Queen Nefertari was already married to Ramses II at his accession (1290 BC). But she was not mentioned in connection with the King's First Jubilee in the year 30 of his reign and it seems likely that she died before it. We know that Queen Nefertari was neither the only nor the first bearer of this name. Its first bearer was Queen Ahmes-Nefertari, the mother of the Theban Eighteenth Dynasty who may have been the great-grandmother of our queen. Nefertari's bearing of the designation "god's wife" emphasized apparent emulation of Queen Ahmes-Nefertari, who was also the god's wife...From her name and titles it is apparent that Nefertari played a special role in her time. The fact that Ramses II was eager to show her accompanying him, a feature uncommon otherwise, suggests that she could influence his position in the country.

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Exclusive honors
Titles; "beautiful face" and "pretty with two feathers" could be taken as reference simply to the queen's physical appearance. Another describes her as "appeasing the gods". This expression is associated with kings; and states their adherence to and support of the ritual requirements of the cults. None of the Egyptian queens, so far as we know, had been held in such honor, for none had a temple dedicated to her jointly with a goddess, as was the case with Nefertari at Abu-Simbel..The temple facade has six statues, each 33 feet high, four of them representing the king and two belonging to the queen. The walls ot the temple are adorned with various scenes; some represent the pharaoh defeating his enemies while the queen stands behind him, others represent the king and the queen bearing offerings in the presence of the goddesses and deities, asking their blessings. The most interesting scene represents the coronation of Nefertari by Isis and Hathor. There, the figure of Nefertari stands at the side of the colossus of Ramses II and in the Ramseseum temple. She is represented dancing a ceremonial dance in front of the king during the feast of the god Min.

Her own tomb
Ramses II has a tomb for Nefertari hewn out in the Valley of the Queens called by the ancients "The Place of Beauty", this tomb is the most beautiful in the Valley of the Queens, and is on the whole worthy of her position in history. The decorative motifs on walls and ceilings are mythological and are concerned with life in the netherworld, meetings with gods, deities, genii and monsters, and the entry into the realm of eternity. In these scenes our queen is represented always wearing long, transparent white garments, with two long feathers over the vulture-like headdress of gold. She wears rich jewels, in addition to bracelets and a wide golden collar.

Description of the tomb
Outer doorway from entrance staircase into outer hall: the two lambs were inscribed with the name of Nefertari. The lintel over the doorway is decorated with a sundisk setting in the horizon flanked on both sides by Wadjet-Eye. The scene also included a depiction of Isis and Nephthys in falcon form. Left and right thickness of the door is decorated with the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet. The Outer Hall has an almost square format of 5.20m by 5.30m. A rock cut bench, with niches below it, designed to support part of the funerary equipment, projects from the western and northern walls. The long inscription above the bench is a rather garbled version of 17th Chapter of the Book of the Dead. The upper register is filled with various scenes, serving as illustrative register of the southern wall containing different scenes.

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On the left, the queen is shown on a throne. In her right hand she holds a kind of wand, with the other she reaches for a game. The scene is placed in a kiosk made of reeds. Here the queen plays with her soul.

The next scene shows a bird with the queen's head, the Egyptian representation of the individual soul. The ba-bird is standing on a scale taking a shape of the tomb. The ba was a psychic force. The word was employed as a synonym of the manifestation of a god. Then the queen herself kneels in front of her soul, with hands uplifted in adoration of two juxtaposed lions, between them the sun's disk.

These scenes of the two lions mean "yesterday and tomorrow" or "the past and the future". Then, the graceful bird "benu" is the representation of the phoenix, the sacred bird of Heliopolis. The phoenix was regarded as the soul (ba) of Ra', but was also a manifestation of Osiris. The bird benu is followed by a multiple scene consisting of a shrine with a bier on which a prepared mummy of the queen is placed. This shrine is flanked on either side by representations of both goddesses Isis and Nephthys.  The next scenes consist of two figures, one squatted bearded deity who holds a palm branch, the other standing before him holding his two outstretched arms over two squares. Next is the seated figure of a falcon headed deity before a largescale "Sacred Eye". The decoration continues with the registers. They begin at the left with the scene of a cow resting on a support. The next illustration is a composite scene. Its center is a coffin with a jackal placed inside. It is surrounded on both sides by two mummiform figures. The right part of the upper register contains the four "Sons of Horus" accompanied by a fifth apparently Horus himself. To the right is the Jackal- headed Anubis, the god responsible for embalming. On the north side of the passage Osiris is shown in his shrineIn the recess the thickness of the passage is decorated on both sides with the representation of a goddess Selket (Scorpion). West inner face of the recess, the decoration consists of a Djad pillar, the symbolic representation of Osiris. North face of the recess, the scene shows the goddess Isis leading Queen Nefertari to the right, in the realm of god Khepri. South face of recess is decorated with a depiction of Harsiese (Horus son of Isis) holding Nefertari by her hand and introducing her to Harakhty and the West (Hathor)...The scenes decorating the west wall of the side room show the queen bringing linen offering to Ptah. Behind the shrine of Ptah is a large Djad pillar, the symbol of Osiris. The scene on the north wall shows Nefertari paying her respects to the god Thoth. The left part of the wall is covered with a text of eight columns. It is a copy of Chapter 94 of the Book of the Dead.

The east wall of side room is filled with two scenes separated in the center by an up-right standing fan. In the left scene the god Osiris is shown enthroned in the mummiform body, before him are the four "Sons of Horus". The queen is shown stretching her arm. The parallel right scene depicts the queen's offerings to god Atum. South wall of this side room is divided into three registers, the two upper being filled with seven cows and one bull. The bottom register shows four steering oars. On the following wall Nefertari with her raised arms in adoration is part of the adjoining last scene. The other panel on this west wall represents Ra' and Osiris united in the form of a ram-headed figure between Isis & Mephthys.

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From the Outer hall a corridor, descending 18 steps continues the funerary designation of the tomb. The descent to the underworld is beautifully decorated. North thickness of upper part of West and East wall of corridor, the space is decorated with the Djad-pillar with two arms holding a scepters. Southern thickness of upper part of West and East wall is decorated with the goddesses Neith & Selket. Upper part of East wall corridor, the composition in the triangular space is arranged in the same way as on the opposite wall. On the left hand Nefertari offers two bowls of milk to goddess Isis behind whom sits Nephthys with Maat. On the right hand, Nefertari makes a similar offering to Hathor behind whom sits Selket, with Maat as before in the background.

Lower down there is a winged Uraeus, guarding two carts of the queen. The underneath, beginning about the kneeling figure of Maat, is another scene in which the Jackal Anubis stretched out on a tomb welcoming the queen. The bottom part of the east wall is decorated by the figure of Nephthys, while the parallel part of the west wall is decorated with Isis. The doorway lambs of the burial chamber are inscribed with the name and titles of Nefertari, while the sofas are decorated with a winged Maat. This corridor leads to that part of the tomb where the funeral ceremony was terminated and in which occurred the final transition to the burial chamber. The burial chamber is a relatively large rectangular room (10.40x8.50m) with four square pillars supporting the ceiling. Two side rooms and a small inner room are accessible from it. The entry walls to the burial chamber are adorned by four goddesses, while the walls are mostly decorated with scenes from the Book of the Dead. The queen is represented passing through nine gates from the domain of Osiris, which are guarded by dreadful demons. On the northern wall of the chamber she is shown before Osiris, Hathor, and Anubis. The four pillars form a kind of shrine to contain her sarcophagus, now lost. The pillars are decorated with the Djad pillar and various deities. The two side rooms flanking the burial chamber on the west and east are poorly preserved. An interesting scene on the eastern wall of the western side room shows Nefertari in the shape of a mummy. The function of the small inner room and two side rooms is not yet known because of their great obliteration.

We know that his father, Menna, apparently worked for the Temple of Amun on the East bank, and we believe that Pashedu would have probably been the first member of his family to work with the community at Deir el-Medina.

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Pashedu and his Wife, Nedjembehdet on Boat to Afterworld

He was most likely a stonemason who helped clear the passage through the limestone cliffs when tombs were built. He may have later been promoted to a foreman of the left side.  Two teams usually built tombs on the west bank, consisting of a left and right work gang (One team worked on the left side of a tomb while a second team worked on its right). 

Pashedu was married to Nedjembehdet, and together they had a number of sons (and possibly daughters).

Pashedu's tomb was known and apparently robbed during antiquity. It was rediscovered in 1834 by Egyptian soldiers who were probably hunting treasure. A Scottish traveler  and artist named Robert Hays happened to be in Luxor at this time and having heard of the discovery, he made drawings within the tomb. 

Osiris with the Mountains of the West Behind him

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This is a very simple tomb layout with an antechamber and a short corridor leading to a burial chamber.  Only the corridor and burial chamber are decorated.

The corridor has a large painting on either wall of the god, Anubis as a jackal sitting on a pedestal. These two images are mirror reflections of each other.  Between Anubis' hind paws he holds a nekhakha-flail.

As we enter the burial chamber, just above the doorway on the front left wall is a small image of the deceased worshipping the goddess Nut in a tree. She emerges from the tree trunk and pours a libation over the kneeling pashedu, whose hand are raised to catch the water. In three registers, the rest of the lower wall is a scene depicting rows of the deceased's family in adoration. In the arch above the doorway, we find Pashedu worshipping Sokar-Osiris in the form of a winged falcon on a boat. Above the god is an udjat-eye.

Turning the corner, on the long left wall we first encounter a scene showing Pashedu and his wife with their hands raised in worship of Horus. By there feet are a son and granddaughter. Note the wax perfume on his wife's head. Here, passages from the Book of the Dead surround the images of Pashedu and Nedjembehdet. Further down the wall is a fragmentary image of Horus as a falcon, also surrounded by the text from the Book of the Dead.

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Images no longer adorn the lower part of the back wall of the burial chamber, but within the upper arch we find a scene depicting Osiris in full regalia.  A deity raises a burning brazier (candles)  before him.  Behind him are the mountains of the west over which is shown a udjat-eye holding a second burning brazier.  On the very left is another falcon (Horus?). We find Pashedu kneeling at the foot of the scene in adoration. 

The first scene at the rear of the right wall that we find is of Pashedu and his wife on a boat.  The child with them is perhaps a granddaughter or may be an unknown daughter.  We are told that they are making their way west to the land of the dead. Before them on the boat is a table  of offerings. Next, there is a larger scene showing the deceased and a girl worshipping the gods Re-Harakhty, Atum, Knepri and Ptah, who are seated.

The final scene on the right wall towards the front is of Pashedu worshipping Ptah-Sokar-Osiris, while on the front right wall next to the entrance door we find probably the best known scene in this tomb.  Here, Pashedy crouches by a stream in the shade of a palm tree laden with clusters of dates. Chapter 12 of the Book of the Dead describes how the water will quench the fires of the underworld and so preserve the deceased from harm. 

Pashedu Drinking from a Canal

On the right part of the vaulted ceiling we find details a procession of gods.  These include, from right, Thoth followed by Hathor and the Re Harakhty and finally Neith.  A similar procession of gods adorns the left side of the ceiling.

The tomb (KV 16) was discovered on or before October 11, 1817 by Giovanni Battista Belzoni just before his discovery of the much more significant tomb of Seti I.  It is located in a small lateral valley perpendicular to the main Valley of the Kings Wadi. While small, the tomb has wall paintings of excellent workmanship. Belzoni tell us that:

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"Having proceeded through a passage thirty-two feet long, and eight feed wide, I descended a staircase of twenty-eight feet, and reached a tolerably large and well-painted room...seventeen feet long, and twenty-one wide. The ceiling was in good preservation, but not in the best style. We found a sarcophagus of granite, with two mummies in it, and in a corner a statue standing erect, six feet six inches high, and beautifully cut out of sycamore-wood: it is nearly perfect except the nose. We found also a number of little images of wood, well carved, representing symbolical figures. Some had a lion's head, others a fox's, others a monkey's. One had a land-tortoise instead of a head. We found a calf with the head of a hippopotamus. At each side of this chamber is a smaller one, eight feed wide, and seven feet long; and at the end of it another chamber, ten feet long by seven wide. In the chamber on our right hand we found another statue like the first, but not perfect. No doubt they had been placed one on each side of the sarcophagus, holding a lamp or some offering in their hands, one hand being stretched out in the proper posture for this and the other hanging down. The sarcophagus was covered with hieroglyphics merely painted, or outlined: it faced south-east by east."

The tomb is rectilinear in structure with only a single corridor, unlike most the rest of the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. The corridor is located between two descending sets of stairways, and is the shortest of any royal tomb in the valley. The second set of stars opens directly into the burial chamber. A large, granite sarcophagus dominates the burial chamber. The paintings on the sarcophagus are not finished, and were hurriedly done. The decorations of the tomb, like those of Horemheb, are related to the Book of Gates, and all have blue backgrounds. While the decorations are well done, their are no reliefs. In the burial chamber, Ramesses, presenting offerings to Atum-Re-Khepri, is led into the presence of Osiris by Horus, Atum and Neith. There is also an unusual depiction of the Pharaoh in a ceremony of jubilation between a hawk and jackal-headed figure representing the spirits of the cities of Nekhen and Pe. The burial chamber and left annex are the only rooms in the tomb that are decorated, and it is very likely that the same craftsman who worked on Horemheb's tomb also worked on this one.

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There are two annexes on either side of the burial chamber, along with a third annex at its rear.   

General Site Information

• Structure: KV 16

• Location: Valley of the Kings, East Valley, Thebes West Bank, Thebes

• Owner: Rameses I

• Other designations: 11 [Hay], 16 [Lepsius], 2 [Champollion], 3 [Belzoni], X [Burton]

• Site type: Tomb

Orientation

• Axis in degrees: 240.41

• Axis orientation: Southwest

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Site Location

• Latitude: 25.44 N
• Longitude: 32.36 E
• Elevation: 175.89 msl
• North: 99,539.973
• East: 94,050.193
• JOG map reference: NG 36-10
• Modern governorate: Qena (Qina)
• Ancient nome: 4th Upper Egypt
• Surveyed by TMP: Yes

Measurements

• Maximum height: 6.55 m
• Mininum width: 0.75 m
• Maximum width: 13.85 m
• Total length: 188.11 m
• Total area: 702.02 m�
• Total volume: 2174.29 m�

Additional Tomb Information

• Entrance location: Base of sloping hill
• Owner type: King
• Entrance type: Ramp
• Interior layout: Corridors and chambers
• Axis type: Straight

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Decoration

• Grafitti 
• Painting 
• Sunk relief 

Categories of Objects Recovered

• Human mummies 
• Tomb equipment 
• Vessels 

Dating:

• New Kingdom, Dynasty 20, Setnakht
• New Kingdom, Dynasty 20, Rameses III
• Graeco-Roman Era

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History of Exploration

• Pococke, Richard (1737-1738): Mapping/planning 
• Bruce, James (1769): Epigraphy 
• Bruce, James (1769): Mapping/planning 
• Browne, William George (1792): Visit 
• Napoleonic Expedition (1799): Epigraphy 
• Belzoni, Giovanni Battista (1816, 1819): Excavation (removal of sarcophagus and lid) 
• Burton, James (1825): Mapping/planning 
• Hay, Robert (1825-1835): Epigraphy 
• Franco-Tuscan Expedition (1828-1829): Epigraphy 
• Lepsius, Carl Richard (1844-1845): Epigraphy 
• Service des Antiquit�s (1895): Excavation 
• Marciniak, Marek (1981): Epigraphy
  

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Elephantine Island

Elephantine Island is the largest of the Aswan area islands, and is one of the most ancient sites in Egypt, with artifacts dating to predynastic periods. This is probably due to its location at the first Cataract of the Nile, which provided a natural boundary between Egypt and Nubia. As an island, it was also easily defensible. In fact, the ancient town located in the southern part of the island was also a fortress through much of it's history. At one time, there was a bridge from the mainland to the island.

Elephantine is Greek for elephant. In ancient times, the Island, as well as the southern town, was called Abu, or Yabu, which also meant elephant. The town has also been referenced as Kom, after it's principle god of the island, Khnum (Khnemu). It is believed that the island received it's name because it was a major ivory trading center, though in fact, it was a major trading post of many commodities. There are large boulders in the river near the island which resembled bathing elephants, particularly from afar, and this too has been suggested as a reason for the island's name.

The island is very beautiful, and while many of the artifacts there are in ruin, there is still considerable to see. One of it's main attractions is it's Nilometer, which is one of only three on the Nile, which was used to measure the water level of the Nile as late as the nineteenth century. There has been an ongoing excavation at the town for many years by the German Archaeological Institute, and some of the finds along with many other island artifacts, including a mummified ram of Khnum, are located in the Elephantine Museum. Another major attraction is the ruins of the Temple of Khnum. Elephantine Island was considered to be home of this important Egyptian god, and while this structure dates back to the Queen Hatshepsut of the 18th Dynasty, there are references to a Temple of Khnum on the island as early as the 3rd Dynasty. There are also ruins of a Temple of Satet, who was Khnum's female counterpart (the three local deities were foremost Khnum, but also Satet and a local Nubian goddess Anqet. These gods were worshipped here since the earliest dynasties), also build by Queen Hatshepsut, a shrine to Hekayib from the 6th Dynasty, a local governor who was deified after his death. His cult flourished during the middle kingdom, and some fine statues from the shrine are now in the museum. You will also find a 3rd Dynasty granite step pyramid which is now just visible, and to the north, the mud-brick vaults of the late period which housed the bodies of the royal rams. On the south end of the island is a small one room Ptolemaic temple which was constructed from materials removed from the Kalabsha Temple. Here, there are decorations attributed to the Nubian Pharaoh Arkamani from the 3rd century BC The building seems to have been finished by the Romans with reference to Caesar Augustus.

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Other artifacts and archaeological sites have been removed or destroyed. Prior to 1822, there were temples of Thutmose III and Amenhotep III, both of which were relatively intact, but they were destroyed in that year by the Turkish government. A rare calendar, known as the Elephantine Calendar, dating to the reign of Tuthmosis III, was found in fragments, and a Papyrus dating to the 13th dynasty and known as the Elephantine Papyrus was also discovered. It is unclear where these artifacts are currently located. A stela with inscriptions commemorating the repairs made on a 12th Dynasty fortress which honored Senwosret III was also found, and is now in the British Museum.

Elephantine Island is a beautiful place to visit, with wonderful gardens and some truly significant artifacts. It is also a good place to spend some leisure time, wondering among the Nubian villages where the people are friendly and the houses are often very colorful. The houses often have paintings or carved with a crocodile at the bottom, a fish in the middle and a man on top, with a woman's hand made of brass as a door knocker between the fish and man. Others will have a sacred black cube of Mecca, with a painting depicting the means of the owner's pilgrimage to Mecca.

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Elephantine, Town of All Ages

    On a 12-meter high granite rock standing out of the Nile River in the southern part of Aswan lies the lofty ancient town of Elephantine. Excavation of the site, which has been on stream for 30 years now, was finally crowned with success. Work is now in full swing under the supervision of Gaballah Ali Gaballah, Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, so as to put the final touches before the town be opened for the public.

    Elephantine, which is a resounding architectural triumph, is the only historic town of its kind since the temples, housing and industrial estates built on its land illustrate the progress of the ancient Egyptian civilization as of prehistoric ages (3500 BC) to the Islamic era.

    Elephantine enjoys a very safe position at the top of a 12-meter rock - hence invulnerability to high subterranean water levels. It is because Elephantine has a relatively small area, extensive excavations throughout the town have been carried out. In Pharaonic times, Elephantine had a strategic position being the southern frontier town.

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The gate of the town lies south-west of the garden of Aswan Museum. It leads to the last temple built under the Ptolemic reign (2300 BC) for the worship of goddess Satit (Elephantine Mistress). Like other temples built during that period, Satit temple was later used as a quarry. It had an air of abandonment and neglect to such an extent that only the foundations remained after everything else has disappeared.

    Excavation has proved that Satit temple underwent frequent processes of restoration but it remained a small simple hut built of unbaked bricks nevertheless. A large amount of offerings to Satit made by royalty and the populace was also unearthed. About 1.3Km from the temple’s gate there is evidence of prehistoric settlements.

In addition to Satit temple, Elephantine hosts Khnum temple, a stairway built by the Romans, the sacred harbour which Amenhotep III built in the 18th Dynasty and two other temples which date back to the Roman-Ptolemic era and of which nothing remained except for loose huge stones beyond number.

The north side of the stairway bears inscriptions suggesting that the stairway was erected in 139 AD. The stairway was only used during festivals to link the harbor and the temples’ area.

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    Little pieces of furniture were unearthed since furniture made of wood and straw was used to operate stoves. A treasure of coins dating back to the early Ptolemic era, a marriage contract concluded under the reign of Nectanebo II and some utensils made of metal such as stoves grinders and vessels were unearthed as well. All are exhibited alongside other antiquities unearthed by fresh excavations in the Excavation Museum.

    "A lot of concerted efforts exerted by the Egyptian Higher Institute of Antiquities together with the Swiss Archaeological and Architectural Research Institute has been put to render success this event," Minister of Culture Farouk Hosni said.

Meir is the necropolis of El Qusiya, which was ancient Cusae, the capital of the fourteenth Nome of Upper Egypt. Unusual and distinctive, scenes in here are very natural and realistic, particularly in the Chapels of Senbi and Ukhhotep. Some scenes even verge on caricatures.  Recent renovations have added considerable texture and color of these images. There are Nine tombs we believe to be open to the public and an additional six that were never finished and remain un-excavated.  

Tomb one and two, which adjoin each other, are inscribed with 720 pharaonic deities.  However, during the early Christian era, the early Cops who used the tombs defaced many of these, which they were prone to due elsewhere.  Tomb four is interesting because you can see the grid work that the artists used to create the tomb art.

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For Information on Ezbet Rushdi, Tell Far'un (Tell Fara'un), Kom el-Hisn (ancient Imu), Kom Abu Billo (known to the Greeks as Terenuthis) and Tell el-Maskhuta near Ismaliya, see part two of this series.. For information on Tell el-Muqdam (Leontopolis), Tell el-Qirqafa and Tell el-Rub'a (Tell El Robee, Greek Mendes) see part three in this series and for information on Tell el-Retaba, Saft el-Hinna, Samannud (Sebennytos) and Tell el-Yahudiya, see part four.

It is very easy to think that most building activity occurred in southern Egypt, but this is because the conditions in the Egyptian delta are not conducive to surviving structures. For all of the period prior to the building of the High Dam just south of Aswan, it was flooded yearly, burying any buildings remains which are often even underneath the water table! Often, our best source of information on these temples and other remains are not archaeological digs, but ancient documentation.

Abusir

This area is not to be confused with the pyramid field named Abusir near Saqqara. It is located about 48 km (30 miles) west of Alexandria, and is the site of the ancient Taposiris Magna, which was an important city of the Ptolemaic Period. The temple we call Taposiris Mana probably dates from the same period.  The temple was dedicated to Osiris. Only the outer wall, which were strangely made of limestone, while most other structures in the Delta during this period were made of mudbrick, and the pylons remain from the temple. There is evidence to prove that sacred animals were worshipped there. Archeologists found an animal necropolis near the temple. Remains of a Christian church show that the temple was used as a church in later centuries. Also found in the same area are remains of public baths built by the emperor Justinian, a seawall, quays and a bridge. Near the beach side of the area, we can see the remains of a tower built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The tower was an exact replica of the destroyed Alexandria's Pharos Lighthouse.

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Tell Atrib (Athribis)

This site is located just to the northeast of the modern town of Benha on the Damietta branch of the Nile, about 48 miles north of Cairo. It is the site of ancient Hut-hery-ib, called Athribis by the Greeks. Today, it is called Kom Sidi Youssuf. It was the capital of this nome (10th), and the city's history dates back into the Old Kingdom period. A number of kings built here, including Amenhotep III, who's northernmost building project was a temple in the city. It is now completely gone, but the remains of a number of temples has been located. Several of these date to the Graeco-Roman period, and another dates to the reign of the King Amasis, of Egypt's Late Period. Unfortunately, the ruins are too destroyed to even allow a full reconstruction. Most of the minor monuments found here can be dated to the 25th through 30th Dynasties, with none being earlier than the 12th Dynasty. There is also an extensive Graeco-Roman cemetery. Some 26th to 30th Dynasties silver ingots and jewelry that were found at the Athribis site that are now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

Unfortunately, considerable excavation work needs to be done in the location quickly, for the area is slowly sinking even has modern apartment buildings are being built atop it. It is the Polish-Egyptian Archaeological Mission that is carrying out this work.

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There work has been concentrated in the northwestern part of the Ptolemaic quarter, where the remains of workshops and a bath compound had been found. In the area extending west and southwest of the baths, three different Ptolemaic strata could be distinguished. The majority of the ceramic material found here was produced by local workshops. The vessels demonstrate a continuation of ancient Egyptian traditions or an imitation of Greek patterns, or a combination of both. Such mixed traditions are also visible in the terracotta figurines found in the Ptolemaic strata. Various furnaces and stoves were unearthed, and workshops for the production of faience vessels and the sculpting of limestone votive objects could be identified. The excavations of the Mid-Ptolemaic baths were continued as well.

Ausim (Letopolis)

Ausim is located only about 13 kilometers northwest of Cairo, and is the site of the ancient Egyptian town of Khem. The Greeks called it Letopolis. It was the capital of the second Lower Egyptian nome. Ausim is an ancient city, and it, along with its principle god, Khenty-irty (Khenty-Khem) are both mentioned in text dating to the Old Kingdom. Though this god probably had a temple in the city, we have found nothing of it, and the few scattered and fragmentary remains that have been found bear the names of Necho II, Psammetichus II, Hakoris and Nectanebo I, of the 26th through 30th Dynasties. 

Behbeit el-Hagar

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Behbeit el-Hagar is located about 8 km (5 miles) west of el-Mansura. It is situated on the Damietta branch of the Nile very near Samannud, which in ancient times was known as Sebennytos, and was the home of the kings of the 30th Dynasty. The temple at Behbeit el-Hagar was dedicated to Isis, to whom the 30th Dynasty kings were particularly devoted. Egyptologists believe that it was one of the most important temples to Isis in Egypt, possibly acting as a northern counterpart of the Isis temple at Philae. In fact, some inscriptions to Isis in the temple probably predate those at Philae. Within its enclosure walls, some remains of the early Ptolemaic Period temple may still be seen. However, the temple has collapsed, possible as early as the late in Egypt's dynastic history. Almost uniquely, however, the structure seems to have been built almost entirely out of granite. So fine are the carved reliefs of the wall decorations, which well surpasses that found in the Ptolemaic temples of Upper Egypt, that in classical times one block from the temple was transported to the chief Isis temple at Rome.  

Recently, Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) has decided to use computers to reconstruct the Temple of Isis there. Plans call for determining the basic layout of the temple, then replicating that in stone. Accompanying excavations in the area should yield exciting new information about the Late and Ptolemaic periods.

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Tell el-Dab'a

Located just east of Tell el-qirqafa, near the village of el-Khata'na, about six kilometers north of Faqus in the eastern Nile Delta, this is likely the site of the Hyksos era capital of Avaris. However, even as early as the 12th Dynasty, apparently the Egyptian royalty granted liberal access to the town of Tell el-Dab'a, which seems to have become something like a free trading town. This probably resulted in the marked increase in the number of settlers of Syro-Palestinian origin. Very little remains here, but the site is apparently being excavated by a Czech team at this time. Other archaeologists in the region seem to include the Austrian Archaeological Institute of Cairo and the Institute of Egyptology of the University of Vienna.  It has a complex history, and New Kingdom building activity by Horemheb and the Ramessids included a large temple which was probably dedicated to the god, Seth. 

Apparently the Austrian teams are investigating a mortuary precinct with several necropolises dating to the 2nd Intermediate Period. These included several strata of burials dating from the late 13th Dynasty to the very end of the Hyksos Period. Three main types of burials were found, including vaulted mud brick tombs set into pits, simple pit burials, and infant burials in large vessels of Egyptian and foreign origin. There are 32 burials in this relatively small area. Interestingly, most of the tombs were undisturbed.

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The most prominent tomb in the area was orientated NW-SE with the burial chamber (measuring 2,65 x 1,65 m) and single vault constructed of mud-bricks. The vault collapsed some time after the covering of the tomb and seemed therefore to be destroyed by grave-robbers. Luckily, this conclusion was incorrect. A single skeleton was found in the entrance area together with a round bottomed cup and a jar. Next to the northeastern wall a young female servant was buried in a slightly contracted position looking towards the tomb chamber. The body was placed in this position at the time of the main burial. Because of the circumstances of this and other burials of the period there is a strong possibility that the girl was offered to her master as a human sacrifice. This would have been a very rare occurrence practically unheard of since the earliest of of Egypt's history. 

Apparently, the owner of the tomb was a soldier. He was buried with his weapons and an assemblage of different pottery types. Bones of goats or sheep placed on a dish next to his head are remains of a meat offering. He wore a copper belt with an attached dagger with five middle ribs on his left side. In his arms he held a scimitar still in its sheath. The sword itself was made of copper and well preserved; the sheath, consisting of an organic material, probably leather, is still to be examined, the handle was made of bone. The blade is cast with a riveted socket, it's point voluted and therefore unique. It is the oldest specimen of this type yet found in Egypt.

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An overall view of the funerary equipment in combination with Egyptian and foreign goods and Egyptian and foreign habits confirms the typical picture of most tombs belonging to this period in Tell el-Dab'a. The tomb is accompanied by several other partly excavated tombs and seems to be at the center of the group, possibly a hint at social implications.

In addition, the Austrian team has recently unearthed a number of horse burials at Tell el-Dab'a.

This is the continuation of Part I in this series examining minor ruins of temples and other monuments in the Nile Delta. For information on Abusir (in the Delta), Tell Atrib (Arhribis), Ausim (Letopolis), Behbeit el-Hagar, and Tell el-Dab'a, as well as a listing of the major ruins in the Nile Delta, please see Minor Temple and Other Ruins of the Nile Delta, Part I. In this article, we will take a look at the sites of Ezbet Rushdi, Tell Far'un (Tell Fara'un), Kom el-Hisn (ancient Imu), Kom Abu Billo (known to the Greeks as Terenuthis) and Tell el-Maskhuta near Ismaliya. For information on Tell el-Muqdam (Leontopolis), Tell el-Qirqafa and Tell el-Rub'a (Tell El Robee, Greek Mendes) see part three in this series and for information on Tell el-Retaba, Saft el-Hinna, Samannud (Sebennytos) and Tell el-Yahudiya, see part four.

Ezbet Rushdi

Today known as Ezbet Rushdi el-Saghira, this site near Tell el-Dab'a was apparently the location of a Middle Kingdom town. The local temple, discovered during the 1950s by an Egyptian archaeologist named Shehata Adam, seems to have been founded by Amenemhet I and probably expanded by Senusret III in his 5th year of rule. Both of these rulers reigned during Egypt's 12th Dynasty. The temple was primarily made of mudbrick but had some stone architectural elements such as doorways and columns. The structure's design was typical of Middle Kingdom temples, with a small pillared court followed by a tripartite sanctuary.

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In 1996, the Austrian Archaeological Institute under the directorship of Manfred Bietak decided to re-excavate the temple. It was a major surprise to discover that the temple wall cut into the structures of an older settlement that stretch beneath it. This lower strata has yielded a lot of purely domestic pottery, and some pottery types which are related to cult activities were discovered. Hence, it is believed that there was probably an earlier temple cult on this site. Canaanite and Aegean pottery, much of it dating from about the time of Amenemhet II, was present in most of the substrata, but showed different distribution patterns. Prior to this excavation, the earliest finds of pottery from the Levant and Crete dated to the very end of the 12th Dynasty, but these pieces likely date from the first half or middle of that dynasty. 

Tell Far'un

Near the eastern Delta village of el-Huseiniya are the ancient remains of the Egyptian city named Imet. Today, it is called Tell Far'un, or sometimes Tell Nabasha or Tell Bedawi. The city was the capital of the local nome and the local deity was Wadjit  The outlines of a temple enclosure dedicated to her may still be seen. It measures 215 x 205 meters (705 x 673 ft). From the scant ruins, there appearss to be two temples within the enclosure. The larger of the two was a Ramessid era temple measuring 65 x 30 m (213 x 98 ft 6 in). The smaller temple to the northeast of the Ramessid temple dates from the Late Period, and was 30 x 15m (98 ft 6 in x 49 ft). It was apparently built during the reign of Amasis. There are usurped architectural elements form Middle Kingdom monuments, which seems to imply that there was once a temple of that period here as well. 

Petrie, who explored the area, also discovered a cemetery that he thought turned out to be a very curious place, quite unlike the cemeteries of Memphis, Abydos, and Thebes. It consisted of an immense number of small chambers, or isolated groups of chambers, scattered irregularly over a sandy plain. These were built of unbaked brick and roofed using a  barrel-vault design. Some of the largest were cased (or lined if subterranean) with limestone. These tomb chambers dated from about the period of the 20th Dynasty (Ramessid period). Unfortunately, most of these tombs had been plundered early on, and some even leveled so that new tombs could be built.

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